Insight into the Progress on Natural Dyes: Sources, Structural Features, Health Effects, Challenges, and Potential
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Literature Search Results
2.2. Resources
2.2.1. Plants
2.2.2. Animals
2.2.3. Microorganisms
2.2.4. Minerals
2.3. Structural Features of Natural Dyes
2.3.1. Carotenoids
2.3.2. Polyphenols
2.3.3. Porphyrins
2.3.4. Alkaloids
2.3.5. Quinones
2.4. Pharmacological Activities of Natural Dyes and Related Mechanisms
2.4.1. Antioxidant activities
2.4.2. Anti-Inflammatory Activities
2.4.3. Anti-Cancer Activities
2.4.4. Anti-Obesity and Anti-Diabetic Activities
2.4.5. Anti-Cardiovascular Disease Effects
2.4.6. Anti-Microbial Activity
2.4.7. Anti-Viral Activities
2.4.8. Neuroprotective Effect
2.4.9. Biological Effects of Dyes Regarding Illumination Conditions
2.5. Challenges and Potential of Natural Dyes
2.5.1. Resources
2.5.2. Biotechnology
2.5.3. Efficient Extraction and Separation Strategy
2.5.4. Improvement of Dye Stability
Co-Pigmentation
Encapsulation
3. Conclusions and Future Prospects
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Electronic Database | Search and Terms |
---|---|
Web of Science PubMed | #1 (“Natural dye” OR “Natural pigment” OR “Natural colorants”) AND (“Carotenoids” OR “Anthocyanins” OR “Curcumin” OR “Chlorophylls” OR “Alkaloid” OR “Quinone”) #2 “New” And “Pigment” AND (“Carotenoids” OR “Anthocyanins” OR “Curcumin” OR “Alkaloid” OR “Quinone”) AND “Isolated” #3 (“Carotenoids” OR “Anthocyanins” OR “Curcumin” OR “Betalain”) AND (“Antioxidant” OR “Inflammatory” OR “Anti-cancer” OR “Cancer” OR “Anti-bacterial” OR “Antimicrobial” OR “Obesity” OR “Anti-obesity” OR “Diabetes” OR “Cardiovascular” OR “Anti-viral” OR “Neuroprotective” OR “Alzheimer’s disease”) #4 (“Extraction” OR “Isolation” OR “Extracted” OR “Isolated”) AND (“Carotenoids” OR “Anthocyanins”) AND “New method” |
Category | Compounds | Source | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Carotenoids | 6′-Epimonadoxanthin | Rosary goby (Gymnogobius castaneus) | [51] |
3′-Deoxycapsorubin | Red mamey (Pouteria sapota) | [52] | |
3,3′-Dideoxycapsorubin | Red mamey (Pouteria sapota) | [52] | |
Methyl 5-glucosyl-5,6-dihydro-apo-4,4′-lycopenoate | Planococcus maritimus strain iso-3 | [53] | |
Diapolycopenedioc Acid Xylosylesters A/B/C | Rubritalea squalenifaciens | [53] | |
13Z-zeaxanthin dipalmitate | Wolfberry | [54] | |
Anthocyanins | Malvidin-3-(p-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside | Transgenic Del/Ros1 tomato fruit | [55] |
Malvidin-3-(feruloyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside | Transgenic Del/Ros1 tomato fruit | [55] | |
Petunidin-3-(cis-p-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside | Tomato cultivar Indigo Rose | [56] | |
Malvidin-3-(cis-p-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside | Tomato cultivar Indigo Rose | [56] | |
Petunidin-3-(trans-p-coumaroyl-rhamonside)-glucoside-5-glucoside | Tomato cultivar Indigo Rose | [56] | |
Malvidin-3-(p-methoxy-trans-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucosid | Tomato cultivar Indigo Rose | [56] | |
Delphinidin 3-O-a-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-b-d-glucopyranoside-30-O-b-d-glucopyranoside | Tamarillo fruit | [57] | |
Cyanidin 3-[2′’-(6′’’-coumaroyl)-glucosyl]-glucoside | Nitraria tangutorum | [58] | |
Pelargonidin-3-O-coumaroylglucoside | Mulberry (Morus moraceae) juice | [59] | |
Delphinidin-3-O-coumaroylglucoside | Mulberry (Morus moraceae) juice | [59] | |
Cyanidin 3-O-[2-O-(2-O-(4-O-(6-O-(4-O-(β-glucopyranosyl)-trans-caffeoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-trans-caffeoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-6-O-(trans-sinapoyl)-β-glucopyranoside]-5-O-[6-O-(malonyl)- glucopyranoside] | Purple-violet flowers of Moricandia arvensis | [60] | |
5,7-Dimethylmalvidin 3-O-β-galactopyranoside | Blue Plumbago flower | [61] | |
5,7-Di-methylpetunidin 3-O-β-galactopyranoside | Blue Plumbago flower | [61] | |
5,7-Di-methyldelphinidin 3-O-β-galactopyranoside | Blue Plumbago flower | [56] | |
5,7-Dimethylmalvidin 3-O-α-rhamnopyranoside | Blue Plumbago flower | [61] | |
5,7-Dimethyldelphinidin 3-O-α- rhamnopyranoside | Blue Plumbago flower | [61] | |
5,7-Dimethylpetunidin 3-O-α-rhamnopyranoside | Blue Plumbago flower | [61] | |
petunidin 3-O-[6-O-(4-O-(4-O-cis-(β-d-glucopyranoside)-p-coumaroyl)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside] -5-O-[β-d-glucopyranoside] | Wild Lycium ruthenicum Murr. | [62] | |
3-O-(6-O-α-l-Rhamnopyranosyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-7-O-(6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(E)-caffeoyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-(E)-caffeoyl)-β-d-glucopyranosyl) del-phinidin | Bluish-purple petals of Chinese bellflower (Platycodon grandifloru) | [63] | |
3-O-(6-O-α-l-Rhamnopyranosyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-7-O-(6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(4-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(E)-p-coumaroyl)-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-(E)-caffeoyl)-β-d-glucopyranosyl) delphinidin | Bluish-purple petals of Chinese bellflower (Platycodon grandifloru) | [63] | |
3-O-(6-O-α-l-Rhamnopyranosyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-7-O-(6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(4-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(E)-caffeoyl)-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-(E)-p-coumaroyl)-β-d-glucopyranosyl) delphinidin | Bluish-purple petals of Chinese bellflower (Platycodon grandifloru) | [63] | |
Alatanin D | Purple yam (Dioscorea alata L.) | [64] | |
Alatanin E | Purple yam (Dioscorea alata L.) | [64] | |
Alatanin F | Purple yam (Dioscorea alata L.) | [64] | |
Alatanin G | Purple yam (Dioscorea alata L.) | [64] | |
Panaxidin A (pelaragonidin-4-vinylcatechol) | Panax quinquefolius L. | [65] | |
Panaxidin B (pelargonidin-4-vinylphenol) | Panax quinquefolius L. | [65] | |
Alkaloid | Alstoscholarisine F/G | Alstonia scholaris | [66] |
Oryzadiamine C | Oryza sativa mutant | [67] | |
Oryzadiamine A | Oryza sativa with yellow grain | [68] | |
Rosellin A | Mushroom Mycena rosella | [69] | |
Rosellin B | Mushroom Mycena rosella | [69] | |
Ergopigment 8/9/10 | Claviceps purpurea | [70] | |
Katorazone | Streptomyces sp. IFM 11299 | [71] | |
2-(4-((3E,5E)-14-Aminotetradeca-3,5-dienyloxy) butyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-4-ol | Fusarium moniliforme KUMBF1201 | [72] | |
6′-O-malonyl-amaranthin | Callus culture of Celosia cristata L. | [73] | |
Quinone | Hypalocrinins A/B/C/D/E/F/G | Deep-sea crinoid Hypalocrinus naresianus | [24] |
5′-Hydroxytrypethelone | The mycobiont of lichen Trypethelium eluteriae Sprengel | [74] | |
Gymnochrome A/H | Deep-sea crinoid Hypalocrinus naresianus | [23] | |
1,4,6b,7,10-Pentahydroxy-1,2,6b,7,8,12b-hexahydroperylene-3,9-dione | Endophytic fungus Alternaria tenuissima SS77 | [75] | |
1,4,9,12a-Tetrahydroxy-12-methoxy-1,2,11,12,12a,12b-Hexahydroperylene-3,10-dione | Endophytic fungus Alternaria tenuissima SS77 | [75] | |
1,4,9-tri-hydroxy-1,2-Dihydroperylene-3,10-dione | Endophytic fungus Alternaria tenuissima SS77 | [75] | |
Alaternosides A/C | Rhamnus alaternus L | [76] | |
6-Methoxy-rhodocomatulin 7-methyl ether | Australian sponge Clathria hirsuta | [77] | |
3-Bromo-6-methoxy-12-desethyl- rhodocomatulin 7-methyl ether | Australian sponge Clathria hirsuta | [77] | |
3-Bromo-6-methoxy-rhodocomatulin 7-methyl ether | Australian sponge Clathria hirsuta | [77] | |
3-Bromorhodocomatulin 7-methyl ether | Australian sponge Clathria hirsuta | [77] | |
Grandiquinone A | Leaves of Tectona grandis | [78] | |
Phomopsanthraquinone | Fungus Phomopsis sp. PSU-MA214 | [79] |
Category | Compounds Name | Mechanism | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
Carotenoids | Astaxanthin | Scavenged free radicals, quenched singlet oxygen, ↑ antioxidant enzyme paroxoanase-1, ↑ glutathione concentrations, ↓ lipid peroxidation. | [116] |
Activated the Nrf-2/HO-1 antioxidant pathway by generating small amounts of ROS in HUVEC model. | [126] | ||
↓ Oxidative stress, ↓ MDA content, ↑ SOD | [127] | ||
Lycopene | ↓ NADPH oxidase, ↓ ROS production | [128] | |
Lutein | ↑ SOD, ↓ ROS level, ↑ CAT, ↑ GPx, ↓ GR, ↓ MDA, ↑ reduced glutathione level | [129] | |
Zeaxanthin | ↓ Myeloperoxidase, ↓ MDA, ↑ SOD, ↑ CAT, ↑ glutathione level | [130] | |
Polyphenols | Anthocyanins | Scavenged free radicals, ↑ SOD, ↑ total antioxidant activity | [120] |
Cyanidin-3-arabinoside | ↓ Renal oxidative stress (↑ SOD, ↑ CAT), ↓ lipid peroxidation (↓ TBARS and ↓ MDA) | [121] | |
Gy3G, Mv3G | ↓ ROS, sustained the level of GSH and glutathione antioxidant defense system | [122] | |
Petunidin-3,5-O-diglucoside | Scavenged free radicals, ↓ ROS, ↓ MDA level and GSH consumption | [123] | |
Anthocyanin extract from purple highland barley | Scavenged free radicals, ↓ ROS, ↑ SOD, ↑ CAT | [131] | |
Curcumin | ↓ Serum MDA, ↑ total antioxidant activity, ↑ transcription and expression levels of antioxidant enzymes, ↑ mitochondrial function | [124,125] | |
Alkaloids | Betalain | ↓ MDA, ↑ CAT, ↑ SOD, ↑ GPx, ↑ xanthine oxidase | [132] |
Betanin | Scavenged free radicals, ↓ MDA, ↑ total antioxidant activity | [133] |
Cancers | Compounds Name | Category | Mechanism | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Breast cancer | Lycopene | Carotenoids | Activation of ERK1/2, ↓ cyclin D1 ↑ p21 ↓ phosphorylation of Akt and its downstream molecule mTOR ↑ Bax | [154] |
β-Carotene | Carotenoids | ↑ Apoptosis ↓ cell cycle ↓ PI3K/Akt ↓ ERK | [155,156] | |
Lutein | Carotenoids | ↓ Breast cancer cell proliferation, ↑ expression of cellular antioxidant enzymes, ↓ ROS, ↑ NrF2/ARE pathway, ↓ NF-κB signaling pathway ↑ p53, ↓ HSP60 | [157,158] | |
Crocin | Carotenoids | ↑ Disrupting the microtubule network ↓ Wnt/β-catenin target genes | [159,160] | |
Astaxanthin | Carotenoids | ↓ Cellular migration, ↓ cell number ↓ Expression levels of pontin, mutp53, Oct4, and Nanog, ↓ proliferation Activation of Bax/Bcl2, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved caspase-9 as well as the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, JNK, and p38 | [143,144,145] | |
D-3-5-D, C3R | Polyphenols | ↑ Intracellular reactive oxygen, ↑ apoptosis ↓ MCF-7 cells in the G2/M phases | [161] | |
C3G, Pg-3-G | Polyphenols | ↓ AMPK, ↑ apoptosis ↑ Oxidative stress | [162] | |
Curcumin | Polyphenols | ↓ NF-κB signaling pathway ↓ HER2-TK ↓ Akt protein, ↓ ubiquitin-proteasome pathway ↓ PI3K/Akt signaling pathway ↓ EGFR signaling | [163,164,165,166,167] | |
Betanin | Alkaloids | ↑ Apoptosis-related proteins (Bad, TRAILR4, FAS, p53) | [168] | |
Colorectal Cancer | Astaxanthin | Carotenoids | ↓ Invadopodia, ↓ EMT, ↑ E-cadherin, ↓ vimentin, ↓ cortactin, ↓ MMP2, ↑ miR-29a-3p, ↓ ZEB1, ↓ MYC ↑ Apoptosis, ↑ Bax, ↑ caspase-3, ↓ Bcl2 | [169,170] |
Fucoxanthin | Carotenoids | ↓ Proliferation ↑ DNA damage | [171,172] | |
Crocin | Carotenoids | ↑ Caspase-3 and -7, ↓ proliferation | [173] | |
C3G, C3XR, C3R | Polyphenols | ↑ Probiotics, ↓ inflammation ↓ Pathogenic bacteria | [174] | |
C3G, C3XR, C3R | Polyphenols | ↑ MiR-24-1-5p, ↓ β-catenin | [175] | |
Pg-3-G | Polyphenols | ↓ HT-29 colon cancer cells | [176] | |
Anthocyanin extract | Polyphenols | ↓ Wnt/β-catenin ↓ Mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis | [146] | |
Curcumin | Polyphenols | ↓ NF-κB pathway, ↓ cell cycle ↑ Cytochrome c, ↑ Bax and p53, ↓ Bcl-2 | [177,178] | |
Betaxanthin and betacyanin | Alkaloids | ↓ Bcl2-like protein 4, ↓ cleaved poly ADP-ribosyl polymerase 1, ↓ cleaved caspase-3 ↓ Anti-apoptotic protein B-cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 levels | [179] | |
Gastric cancer | Crocin | Carotenoids | ↓ KLF5 HIF-1, ↑ miR-320, ↓ epithelial–mesenchymal transition, ↓ migration | [180] |
β-Carotene | Carotenoids | ↓ Cell viability, ↑ DNA damage, ↑ apoptotic indices, ↑ caspase-3, ↓ Ku70/80 | [181] | |
Fucoxanthin | Carotenoids | ↑ Beclin-1, ↑ LC3, ↑ cleaved caspase-3 (CC3), ↓ Bcl-2, ↓ cell cycle, ↑ apoptosis, ↓ Mcl-1, STAT3, and p-STAT3 | [182,183] | |
Astaxanthin | Carotenoids | ↓ Cell cycle ↑ NADPH oxidase activity, ↑ ROS levels, ↑ LDH release, ↑ the number of propidium iodide-positive cells ↑ RIP1/RIP3/MLKL signaling pathway | [184,185] | |
Curcumin | Polyphenols | ↓ STAT3 pathway | [178] | |
Liver cancer | Astaxanthin | Carotenoids | ↑ Cell number in G2 phase ↑ Cell number in G2/M phase ↑ Apoptosis ↑ Oxidative stress, ↑ adiponectin | [186,187,188] |
Crocin | Carotenoids | ↓ NF-κB, ↓ inflammation, ↓ cell cycle, ↑ apoptosis | [189] | |
Fucoxanthin | Carotenoids | ↓ Glutathione (GSH) content, ↓ proliferation Reverting body weight, serum albumin, antioxidant enzymes, all the liver enzymes, serum bilirubin, and stress markers to normal levels in hepatocellular carcinoma rats | [190,191] | |
C3G, Pn-3-G | Polyphenols | ↓ TNF-α, iNOS, NF-κB ↓ Cell proliferation | [192] | |
C3G, C3R | Polyphenols | ↓ Lipid peroxidation, ↓ COX-2 ↑ Nrf2-mediated antioxidant enzymes | [193] | |
M3G | Polyphenols | ↓ Proliferation, ↑ apoptosis, ↓ ROS, ↑ JNK/p38 MAPK pathways, ↓ AKT phosphorylation, ↓ migration, ↓ invasion | [147] | |
Curcumin | Polyphenols | ↓ Migration, ↓ invasion, ↓ epithelial–mesenchymal transition, ↓ aryl hydrocarbon receptor/ERK/SK1/S1P3 signaling pathway | [194] | |
Betanin | Alkaloids | ↑ Nrf2, ↑ mitogen-activated protein kinases | [195] | |
Lung cancer | Astaxanthin | Carotenoids | ↑ Cell number in G0/G1 phase ↑ p38 MAPK ↑ Apoptosis | [196] |
Crocin | Carotenoids | ↑ G0/G1 arrest, ↑ mRNA levels of p53 and Bax, ↓ Bcl-2, ↑ apoptosis | [197] | |
Lutein | Carotenoids | ↓ PI3K/AKT, ↑ apoptosis | [198] | |
C3G | Polyphenols | ↓ Lung tumor multiplicity and tumor area, ↓ expression of proliferative cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and Ki-67 | [199] | |
Curcumin | Polyphenols | ↓ NF-κB, ↓ JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway, ↓ JAK2 ↓ Cell proliferation, ↑ apoptosis ↑ microRNA-192-5p, ↓ PI3K/Akt signaling pathway ↓ Wnt/β-catenin pathway | [150,151,152,153] | |
Betalain | Alkaloids | ↑ Proliferation, ↓ cell cycles, ↑ p53/p21, ↓ levels of cyclin-D1 complex, ↓ levels of p-PI3K, ↓ p-Akt, ↓ mammalian target of rapamycin | [200] | |
Prostate cancer | Astaxanthin | Carotenoids | ↑ Apoptosis, ↑ cleaved caspase-3; ↑ miR-375 and miR-487b | [201] |
Crocin | Carotenoids | ↓ Proliferation, ↓ cell cycle, ↑ apoptosis ↓ Bcl-2, ↓ Bax | [202] | |
Proanthocyanidins | Polyphenols | ↓ Notch1 pathway | [203] | |
C3G | Polyphenols | ↓ Epithelial–mesenchymal transition | [204] | |
Curcumin | Polyphenols | ↓ Expression of CYP11A1 and HSD3B2, ↑ AKR1C2, ↓ dihydrotestos terone ↑ miR-34a, ↓ β-catenin, ↓ c-myc | [205,206] |
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Li, N.; Wang, Q.; Zhou, J.; Li, S.; Liu, J.; Chen, H. Insight into the Progress on Natural Dyes: Sources, Structural Features, Health Effects, Challenges, and Potential. Molecules 2022, 27, 3291. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103291
Li N, Wang Q, Zhou J, Li S, Liu J, Chen H. Insight into the Progress on Natural Dyes: Sources, Structural Features, Health Effects, Challenges, and Potential. Molecules. 2022; 27(10):3291. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103291
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Nannan, Qirou Wang, **gna Zhou, Shuqin Li, Junyu Liu, and Haixia Chen. 2022. "Insight into the Progress on Natural Dyes: Sources, Structural Features, Health Effects, Challenges, and Potential" Molecules 27, no. 10: 3291. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103291