Development and Application of Liquid Crystals as Stimuli-Responsive Sensors
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. LC-Based Biosensors
2.1. LC-Based Glucose Sensors
2.2. Detection of Proteins, Peptides and Nucleic Acids
3.2. Detection of Nitrite
3.3. pH Sensors
4. LC-Based Detection of Gases, VOC and Toxic Substances
4.1. Gas Sensors
4.2. VOCs Sensors
4.3. Detection of Toxic Substances
5. Other LC-Based Sensing Applications
6. Future Perspectives on LC-Based Sensors
7. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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LC Material | Sensing Platform | Analyte | Mode of Interaction with Sensor | Detection Method | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5CB | UV-treated 5CB placed inside a GOx-modified gold grid | Glucose | The H+ produced from the oxidation of glucose triggered an optical response of the LCs from dark to bright | POM | [48] |
5CB | OTAB-treated 5CB in copper grid | Glucose and H2O2 | ssDNA adsorbed onto nano CeO2 gets dislodged from the surface in the presence of H2O2 or glucose | POM | [49] |
5CB | 5CB functionalized with PAA-b-LCP and QP4VP-b-LCP | Glucose | Presence of glucose triggers reorientation of the LC at the pH-sensitive LC-aqueous interface | POM | [46] |
5CB | APBA-decorated 5CB microdroplets | Glucose | Binding between glucose and APBA on 5CB induced reorientation of the LC molecules | POM | [37] |
Polymer dispersed LC composites | Micrometric droplets of PDLC composites prepared by encapsulation of L-ChAc PVAB | Glucose, amino acid and DNA | Interaction of glucose with droplets leaves behind a “chicken-skin texture with rare light spots” | POM | [50] |
5CB | 5CB sandwiched between 2 glass slides treated with cTnI antibody and DMOAP/APTES | Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) | Target-cTnI antibody interaction triggers LC reorientation | POM | [51] |
5CB | 5CB decorated with a nonionic surfactant dodecyl β-D-glucopyranoside | BSA, Con A and lysozyme | Interaction of analyte with the LC/aqueous interface causes LC reorientation | POM | [90] |
5CB | 5CB in TEM grid cell on treated glass | BSA, ChTg Hb and lysozyme | Interaction of protein with LC/aqueous interface triggers LC rearrangement | POM | [91] |
5CB | 5CB in PDMAEMA-treated TEM grid cell | BSA | Electrostatic interaction between BSA and PDMAEMA triggers LC reorientaton | POM | [92] |
5CB | 5CB droplets functionalized with PAA-b-LCP | Avidin | Avidin–biotin binding at the 5CB/aqueous interface causes LC rearrangement | POM | [93] |
5CB | 5CB coated with biotinylated lipids and biotinylated anti-goat IgG in TEM grid cell | Goat IgG | Interaction of goat IgG with the functionalized LC molecules causes LC reorientation | POM | [65] |
5CB | 5CB sandwiched between DMOAP and APTES/ DMOAP-treated glass slides | carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) | Reorientation of the LC molecules due to specific interaction between CEA and modified glass slide | POM | [66] |
5CB | 5CB decorated with quaternary ammonium-based gemini surfactants | BSA, lysozyme and trypsin | Interaction of goat IgG with the functionalized LC molecules causes LC reorientation | POM | [94] |
E7 | Surfactin-decorated LC on DMOAP-treated glass slide | Secondary structure of Cyto, BSA, Hb, Con A and fibronectin | Reorientation of LC due to interaction between protein and LC/aqueous interface | POM | [95] |
DLC | DLC sandwiched between two treated glass slides | BSA | Absorption of azobenzene chromophore for concentration determination and interaction between BSA and LC/aqueous interface that causes LC reorientation | Absorption and POM | [52] |
5CB | 5CB sandwiched between two glass slides | Anti-biotin IgG | LC reorientation caused by specific binding between a target anti-biotin IgG and biotinylated BSA | POM | [56] |
5CB | 5CB sandwiched between DMOAP/APTES-treated glass slides | HBD-2 | LC reorientation due to specific binding of anti-HBD-2 antibody and HBD-2 | POM | [55] |
5CB | 5CB mixed with SDS in copper grid placed on DMOAP-coated glass slide | P53 gene | Interaction of p53 with DNA dendrimers induced rearrangement of LC molecules | POM | [96] |
5CB | 5CB placed between two treated glass slides functionalized by droplets of DNA or PNA | DNA | Reorientation of LC molecules due to DNA interacting with the PNA | POM | [63] |
5CB | 5CB-filled copper grids immersed in OTAB | DNA SSBs | Reorientation of LC due to decreased electrostatic interaction between SSBs and cationic surfactant, OTAB | POM | [64] |
5CB | Aptamer on DMOAP/APTES-treated glass slide consisting of 5CB | Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) | Reorientation of LC as a result of aptamer-IFN-γ binding | POM | [97] |
5CB | Tuberculous antigens immobilized on treated surfaces in the presence of 5CB | Tuberculosis antibody | Reorientation of LC due to antigen-antibody interaction | POM | [98] |
5CB | 5CB immobilized with complementary probe DNA | PSA, CEA and AFP | Reorientation of the LC when target DNA hybridizes with the complementary probe DNA | POM | [67] |
5CB | 5CB droplets functionalized with Herceptin antibody | SK-BR3 cancer cells | Selective interaction of the LC with SK-BR3 induces orientational change | POM | [99] |
5CB | PAA-b-LCP functionalized with urease in the presence of 5CB in TEM grid on an OTS-coated glass | Urea | LC orientational change caused by pH change due to urea hydrolysis | POM | [58] |
5CB | Droplets containing 5CB with urease-functionalized PAA-b-LCP | Urea | Reorientation of the LC due to pH change caused urea hydrolysis | POM | [57] |
5CB | Stearic acid-doped 5CB microdroplets in the presence of urease | Urea | Reorientation of LC due to deprotonation of stearic acid as a result of urea hydrolysis | POM | [35] |
5CB | UV-treated 5CB placed in copper grids on OTS-treated glass | Urease | Ammonia produced from urea hydrolysis in the presence of urease induces orientational change | POM | [61] |
5CB | 5CB- filled Copper TEM grid placed on functionalized glass | Urease and Cu(II) | LC reorientation due to urea hydrolysis or urease inhibition in the presence of Cu(II) | POM | [100] |
5CB | Droplets of 5CB doped with stearic acid on microscope slides | Urease | Reorientation of LC due to deprotonation of stearic acid as a result of urea hydrolysis | POM | [101] |
5CB | DOPG-decorated LC with poly-L-lysine | Trypsin | Reorientation due to interaction of trypsin with the LC/aqueous interface | POM | [102] |
5CB | 5CB-DTAB in the presence of BSA | Trypsin | Reorientation of the LC on adding BSA, and LC alignment persists in the presence of trypsin | POM | [54] |
5CB | BSA-modified grid was filled with 5CB | Trypsin | Reorientation of 5CB at the LC/aqueous interface due to BSA hydrolysis | POM | [53] |
5CB | A cationic surfactant-decorated 5CB on OTS-treated glass | AChE and its inhibitors | Reorientation of LC at the LC/aqueous interface due to AChE | POM and time-dependent Br | [60] |
5CB | 5CB doped with glyceryl trioleate in gold grid cell on OTS-treated glass | Lipase | LC reorientation due to product trioleic acid interacting with LC/aqueous interface | POM | [103] |
5CB | 5CB and a monolayer of phospholipids in TEM grid on treated glass | Lipase | LC realignment due to hydrolysis of phospholipids | POM | [103] |
5CB | OTB monolayer on 5CB inside copper grid cells placed on OTS-treated glass | Carboxylesterase (CES) | Disruption of LC orientation due to hydrolysis of OTB | POM | [62] |
5CB | PBA-doped 5CB microdroplets | Penicillinase | LC reorientation due to deprotonation of PBA at the aqueous/LC interface | POM | [104] |
5CB | 5CB doped with C12-aldehyde in copper grids placed on OTS-treated glass | Catalase | LC reorientation due to interactions between hydrogen peroxide and 5CB doped with C12-aldehyde | POM | [105] |
5CB | 5CB functionalized with dodecyl β-D-glucopyranoside | Cellulase and cysteine | Reorientation of LC due to enzymatic hydrolysis between cellulase and the surfactant | POM | [106] |
5CB | 5CB doped with DOPG in the presence of PLA in grid cells | Thrombin | Hydrolysis of PLA by thrombin causes a disruption of the LC/aqueous interface | POM | [107,108] |
5CB | 5CB-filled TEM grids or 5CB droplets in the presence of surfactant | Cholic acid | LC realignment due to competitive adsorption of cholic acid at the LC/aqueous interface | POM | [109,110] |
5CB | 5CB droplets in the presence of surfactant | Bile acids | Orientational transition due to competitive interaction of bile acids at the LC/aqueous interface | POM | [111,112] |
5CB | PAA-b-LCP-coated 5CB in the presence of ChOx and HRP | Cholesterol | Oxidation of cholesterol disrupts the LC/aqueous interface | [113] | |
5CB | UV-treated 5CB placed in grid cells on treated glass | Cholesterol | H+ generated by reaction of ChOx with cholesterol disrupts the LC alignment | [114] | |
5CB | 5CB on polymeric surface in the presence of antibodies | Viruses | Antibody-virus binding induces reorientation of LC molecules | [70] | |
5CB | 5CB covered with LPS monolayers in gold grid cells | Bacteria | Reorientation of LC due to interaction of bacteria with the LC/aqueous interface | [116] | |
5CB | 5CB in TEM grid cells layered with LPS | PG and LTA | Disruption of LC alignment due to PG/LTA interacting with the LC/aqueous interface | [117] | |
5CB | Phospholipid monolayer on 5CB contained in copper grid in the presence of CS-GO | E. coli | CS-GO action on bacteria may or may not disrupt the LC/aqueous interface, depending on bacterial viability | [118] | |
5CB | 5CB on cell-covered glass slide with PDL-coated glass top | Neurons, fat cells and muscle cells | Preferential orientation of LC molecules on cells provided well-resolved images | Phase contrast images | [69] |
LI-1565 | LC filled in sample cells | Plant pathogens | Perturbation of LC alignment in the presence of plant pathogen | POM and dielectric measurements | [119] |
5CB | 5CB-filled TEM grid cell functionalized with DTAB in the presence of DNA | Myricetin | DNA degradation by myricetin causes reorientation of the LC molecules | POM | [120] |
5CB | 5CB sandwiched between two glass slides in the presence of RAC aptamers | Ractopamine (RAC) | Formation of AuNP-RAC-aptamer conjugate disrupts the LC alignment | POM | [121] |
5CB | BSA-aflatoxin on DMOAP/APTES-treated glass slide in the presence of 5CB and AFT-antibody | Aflatoxin (AFT) | Competitive binding between AFT and BSA-AFT for the antibody disrupts the LC alignment | POM | [122] |
5CB | 5CB sandwiched between two glass slides in the presence of aptamer | Tetracycline | Aptamer-tetracycline interaction disrupts LC alignment | POM | [123] |
LC Material | Sensing Platform | Analyte | Mode of Interaction with Sensor | Detection Method | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5CB | UV-treated 5CB placed inside a urease-modified gold grid | Cu(II) | OH− ions from ammonia product of urea hydrolysis deprotonated the UV-treated LC thereby causing an orientational transition of the LC; the presence of Cu(II) inhibits this transition | POM | [124] |
5CB | Stearic acid-doped 5CB on an OTS-coated glass | Ca(II), Mg(II), Cu(II) and Co(II) | Interaction between metal ion and deprotonated stearic-acid molecules causes an orientational transition of 5CB at the LC/aqueous interface | POM | [72] |
5CB | Pb(II)-specific DNAzyme incorporated on DMOAP/APTES treated glass in the presence of 5CB doped with AIE luminogen | Pb(II) | Fluorescence intensity change due to LC reorientation at the LC/aqueous interface as induced by DNAzyme and its catalytic cleavage in the presence of Pb(II) | Fluorescence | [71] |
5CB | 5CB in TEM grid in the presence of CTAB, SRNA and aptamer | Pb(II) | Formation of a more stable quadruplex structure of the RNA with Pb(II) thereby causing a reorientation of the LC at the LC/aqueous interface | POM | [73] |
5CB | 5CB incubated with magnetic nanoparticles were dispensed in a gold grid placed on a treated glass substrate | Pb(II) | Reorientation of LC at the LC/aqueous interface caused by interaction of Pb(II) with abundant hydroxyl groups on the surface of the nanoparticles | POM | [125] |
5CB | 5CB droplets consisting of OTAB pre-incubated with an aptamer specific for Hg(II) | Hg(II) | Orientational transition of the LC in the presence of Hg(II) due to weakening of OTAB-aptamer electrostatic interactions by the Hg(II) ions | POM | [126] |
5CB | MeDTC-doped 5CB in TEM grids on OTS-treated glass slide | Hg(II) | Reorientation of the LC molecules due to complexation between the chelating group of MeDTC and Hg(II) ions | POM | [27] |
5CB | 5CB functionalized with PAA-b-LCP in Cu grids | Ca(II) | Reorientation of LC molecules due to complexation of PAA chains of PAA-b-LCP with the metal ions | POM | [127] |
5CB | Decylaniline-doped 5CB placed in TEM grid on a glass substrate | Nitrite ion | Reorientation of 5CB due to reaction between nitrite and decylaniline to yield diazonium ions | POM, image analysis | [128] |
5CB | 5CB doped with a pH-sensitive molecule in Cu grid placed on a glass substrate | H+ | Realignment of LC molecules at the LC/aqueous interface due to dissociation of the dopants | POM | [80] |
MLC-2132 doped with CB15 | CLC DEDs coated with pH-responsive PAA-b-LCP | H+ | Reorientation of LC due to deprotonation and protonation of the carboxylate on the PAA chain | POM | [81] |
LC Material | Sensing Platform | Analyte | Mode of Interaction with Sensor | Detection Method | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
E7 | E7 droplets deposited onto the array of gold-coated micro-pillars | NO2 | Transport of NO2 molecules through the LC film to the LC–gold interface induces an orientation transition in the LC film | Transmitted light or image brightness | [77] |
Cholesteric LC mixture EE1 | LC doped with magnetite nanoparticles intercalated into alumina matrix | CO | Shift in the selective reflection peak wavelength due to interaction between CO molecules and magnetite nanoparticles dispersed in the liquid crystal | Shift in transmission peak | [79] |
5CB | 5CB placed in grid cells on chitosan-Cu(II)-decorated glass substrate | Reorientation of the LC molecules due to competitive binding between ammonia gas and Cu(II) on the glass substrate | POM | [129] | |
5CB | LC/polymer composite fibres spread out as a mat on a glass substrate | Acetone and toluene | Change in the optical properties of the LC/fibre mats upon absorption of analyte gases | Transmittance | [131] |
N * LC | N * LC encapsulated in microscale PVP fibers | CO2 | Change in pitch length of sensor due to selective chemical reaction between dopant and analyte | Reflectivity pitch length measurements | [78] |
CLC | CLC film coated side polished fiber (CLCFC-SPF) | Acetone, methanol and THF | Resonant dips in the transmitted spectrum as VOC gases interact with the CLCFC-SPF sensor | Shifts in transmittance peaks | [130] |
5CB | LA-5CB in TEM grid placed on a glass slide | Butylamine vapour | Orientational transition of LC triggered by a reaction between LA and butylamine | POM | [133] |
5CB | UO22+–dependent DNAzyme, its substrate, a capture probe and 5CB sandwiched between DMOAP- and TEA-treated glass slides | UO22+ (Uranyl ion) | Reorientation of LC when the cleaved product released from DNAzyme hybridizes with capture probe to form a duplex | POM | [74] |
5CB | 5CB films consisting of Cu(II) ions applied to functionalized substrates | DMMP vapour | Reorientation of LC molecules due to capture of DMMP by Cu(II) ions | POM | [15,134] |
5CB | 5CB films consisting of Al(III) ions applied to functionalized substrates | DMMP vapour | Reorientation of LC molecules due to interaction between DMMP and aluminium perchlorate-decorated surface | POM | [135] |
5CB | 5CB doped with PBA in the presence of PON1 on Cu grid | Organophosphates | Reorientation of LC molecules due to pH changes caused by enzymatic hydrolysis of organophosphates | POM | [136] |
5CB | 5CB droplets doped with ALP and SMP | Organophosphate pesticide, DDVP | Reorientation of LC molecules due to DDVP hydrolysis by ALP | POM | [76] |
5CB | 5CB droplets doped with AChE and Myr | Baycarb and dimethoate (pesticides) | Reorientation of 5CB at the LC/aqueous interface due to inhibition of Myr hydrolysis in the presence of pesticide | POM | [75] |
5CB | 5CB sandwiched between DMOAP-treated glass slides to one of which biotin-labelled anti-melamine is immobilized | Melamine | Reorientation of LC molecules due to biding of melamine and anti-melamine linked with streptavidin to the primary anti-melamine on the substrate | POM | [137] |
5CB | 5CB sandwiched between APTES/DMOAP-treated glass slides in the presence of BPA aptamer | BPA | Reorientation of LC molecules due to formation of aptamer-BPA complex | POM | [26] |
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Oladepo, S.A. Development and Application of Liquid Crystals as Stimuli-Responsive Sensors. Molecules 2022, 27, 1453. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27041453
Oladepo SA. Development and Application of Liquid Crystals as Stimuli-Responsive Sensors. Molecules. 2022; 27(4):1453. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27041453
Chicago/Turabian StyleOladepo, Sulayman A. 2022. "Development and Application of Liquid Crystals as Stimuli-Responsive Sensors" Molecules 27, no. 4: 1453. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27041453