The Medicinal Natural Products of Cannabis sativa Linn.: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Origin and Botanical Description of C. sativa
4. Phytochemistry of C. sativa
4.1. Chemical Profile of C. sativa
4.2. Extraction, Isolation, and Chemical Characterization of C. sativa
4.3. Biological Evaluation/Potentials of C. sativa
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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S/N * | Class of Compounds | Plant Part(s) | Isolated Compounds | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Cannabinoids: -Cannabinoid acids -Neutral cannabinoids -Cannabinoid derivatives -Cannabinoid acid esters | Leaves, flowers, resin, stembarks, and roots | Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin, α/β-fenchyl Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolate, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, α-terpenyl (−)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinolate, γ-eudesmyl (−)Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinolate, 8α-hydroxy-(−)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol, 8b-hydroxy-(−)- Δ9-trans-tetrahydro cannabinol, 8-oxo-(−)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabisol, (−)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabiphorol, (−)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabihexol, (−)-Δ8-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol, Δ8- trans-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, Cannabigerol, 6,7-trans/cis-epoxycannabigerolic acid, Sesquicannabigerol, Cannabigerolic acid, Cannnabigerovarin, Cannabidiol, C4-Cannabidiol, Cannabidivarin, C4-tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabichromene, Cannabichromevarin, Cannabichromanone, -D4-acetoxycannabichromene, Cannabicitran, Cannabiripsol, Cannabicoumaronone, Cannabifuran, Cannabielsoin, Cannabielsoic acid, Cannabicyclol, Cannabinodiol, bornyl/epi-bornyl-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinlate Cannabinol, Cannabitriol, Cannabimovone, and Cannabioxepane | [8,11,13,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31] |
Non-Cannabinoid Constituents | ||||
2 | Non-cannabinoid phenol: -Stilbenoids -Spiro-indans -Phenanthrenes -Lignans, lignanamides, and phenolic amides | Leaves, flowers, stem, hemp pectin, resin, fruit, seed, and root | Dihydrostilbenes, Dihydrophenathrenes, Cannabistilbene, Canniprene, Cannithrene, Denbinobin, Phloroglucinol β-D-glucoside, Cannabispiran, Cannabispirone, Cannabispirenone, Cannabispirol, Cannabispirketal, a-cannabispiranol-4′-O-β-glucopyranose, prenylspirodienone, 4,5-dihydroxy-2,3,6-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene, Cannabisin A–O 4,7-dimethoxy-1,2,5-trihydroxyphenathrene, 5-methyl-4-pentyl-2,6,2-trihydroxybiphenyl, 5-methyl-4-pentylbiphenyl-2,2,6-triol, N-trans-coumaroyltyramine, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, Ntrans-caffeoyltyramine, 3,3′-demethylheliotropamide, and Grossamide. | [8,13,28,32,33,34] |
3 | Terpenoids (Terpenes): -Monoterpenes -Sesquiterpenes -Diterpenes -Triterpene, | Essential oils of fresh and dried leaves, flowers, stembarks, and roots | α-pinene, β-pinene, linalool, linalool oxide, myrcene, limonene, camphene, α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, α-terpinolene, α-terpineol, terpinene-4-ol, sabinene, sabinene hydrate, cis-sabinene hydrate, α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, 2-methyl-2-heptene-6-one, borneol, piperitenone, geraniol, carvacrol, carvone, cis-carveol, citronellol, bornyl acetate, ipsdienol, germacrene-B, clovandiol, α-bisabolol, β-eudesmol, γ-eudesmol, α-caryophyllene, β-caryophyllene oxide, α-Humulene, Phytol, neophytadiene, friedelin (friedelan-3-one), epifriedelanol, β-amyrin, Vomifoliol, dihydrovomifoliol, and dihydroactinidiolide β-ionone | [8,11,13,28,29,35,36] |
4 | Flavonoids: -Methylated -Glycosylated (C or O glycosides) -Prenylated -Geranylated | Leaves, flowers, seed, and fruit | Orientin, Vitexin, Isovitexin, Apigenin, Luteolin, Kaempferol, Quercetin, Cytisoside, Cytisoside glucoside, Canniflavone (Cannflavin), Naringenin, and Naringin | [8,11,13,28,29,35,37,38,39] |
5 | Sterols | Stembarks, roots, and leaves | Campsterol, Stigmasterol, and β- Sitosterol | [11,40] |
7 | Alkaloids | Roots, leaves, stembark | Cannabisativine and Anhydrocannabisativine | [13,40] |
8 | Fatty acids: -Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and their esters | Seeds | Roughanic acid, Stearidonic acid, α-linolenic acid, and oxylipins. | [8,28] |
9 | Hydrocarbons (n-alkane) | - | Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabiorcolic acid | [8] |
Extraction Solvent(s) | Matrix and Species | Identification, Isolation, and Purification Methods | Elucidation/Analytical Techniques | Analytes | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phenolic Cannabinoids | |||||
Methanol/chloroform mixture. | C. sativa inflorescence | Qualitative, quantitative, and comparative derivatization study of cannabinoids | Fast GC–MS | CBDA, CBGA, CBG, CBD, THC, Δ8-THC, CBC, THCA, THC | [47] |
Supercritical fluid extraction | Plant biomass and medicinal Cannabis resin | Quantitative and qualitative analysis of cannabinoids | UHPLC–DAD and statistical analysis | CBDA, THCA, CBD, CBN, CBC, THC | [48] |
Methanol/chloroform solvent mixture | Cannabis flower samples | Qualitative and quantitative measurement of cannabinoids | HPLC–DAD | Δ9-THC, CBD, CBDA, THCA, CBN, CBG, CBGA, Δ8-THC | [49] |
Ethanol/ethanolic extracts | (i) Lebanese C. sativa (ii) Cannabis (iii) Decarbo-xylated hemp leaves | (i) Purified by counter-current distribution and silica gel chromatography (ii) Florisil and silica gel column chromatography | GCMS, IR, and 1H NMR comparison with an authentic sample | Cannabielsoin, (+)-trans-CBT and (−)-trans -CBT-OEt-C5(Cannibitriol), Cannabicitran, and Monomethylether of CBD | [13,50,51,52] |
Sequential extraction (hexanes, CH2Cl2, EtOAc, EtOH, EtOH/H2O, and H2O) | (i) Bud and leaves of high-potency variety of C. sativa | (i) Silica gel VLC, C18-solid phase extraction (SPE), and HPLC (ii) VLC chromatography of hexane extract, TLC, flash silica gel, Sephadex LH-20 chromatography, and semipreparative reversed-phase (RP) and chiral HPLC | HRESIMS, 1D and 2D NMR, GC–MS | epi-bornyl Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolate, α-terpenyl Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolate, 4-terpenyl Δ9-tetrahydro-cannabinolate, α-cadinyl Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolate, γ-eudesmyl Δ9-tetrahydro-cannabinolate, γ-eudesmyl cannabigerolate, 4-terpenyl cannabinolate, bornyl Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolate, α-fenchyl Δ9-tetrahydro-cannabinolate, α-cadinyl cannabigerolate, Δ9-tetrahydro-cannabinol (Δ9-THC), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (Δ9-THCA), Cannabinolic acid A (CBNA), and Cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), (±)-6,7-trans-epoxycannabigerolic acid, (+)-6,7-cis-epoxycannabigerolic acid, (±)-6,7-cis-epoxycannabigerol, 5′-Methoxy-cannabigerolic acid, 5′-methyl-4-pentylbiphenyl-2, 2′, 6-triol,7-methoxy-cannabispirone, (±)-6,7- trans-epoxycannabigerol, 8α-hydroxy-(−)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol, 8b-hydroxy-(−)- Δ9-trans-tetrahydro cannabinol, 8-oxo-(−)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol, 10α-hydroxy-Δ8-tetra-hydrocannabinol, 10β-hydroxy- Δ8-tetra-hydrocannabinol, 10a-α-hydroxy-10-oxo-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol, (±)-4-acetoxycannabichromene, (±)-3″-hydroxy-Δ(4″, 5″)-cannabichromene,(−)-7-hydroxycannabichromane,(−)-7 R-cannabicoumarononic acid A, 5-acetyl-4-hydroxycannabigerol, 4-acetoxy-2-geranyl-5-hydroxy-3-n-pentylphenol, 8-hydroxycannabinol, 8-hydroxycannabinolic acid A, and 2-geranyl-5-hydroxy-3-n-pentyl-1, 4-benzoquinone, (±)-4-acetoxycannabichromene, (±)-3”-hydroxy- Δ4”-cannabichromene, (–)-7-hydroxycannabichromane, 8-hydroxycannabinol, 8-hydroxy cannabinolic acid, 10S-hydroxy-cannabinol, 9b,10b-epoxyhexahydrocannabinol, 9a-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol, 10a-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol, and 10aRhydroxyhexahydrocannabinol | [31,53,54,55] |
Hexane extract | (i) C. sativa (air-dried and powdered buds) (ii) high-potency variety of C. sativa (iii) Illicit Cannabis samples (iv) C. sativa inflorescence (strain CINRO) (v) Lebanese C. sativa (vi) Hemp (vii) Nepalese and Brazilian C. Sativa. | (i) Column chromatography using silica or alumina, TLC, then fractional distillation and preparative C18 HPLC (ii) VLC (vacuum liquid chromatography) silica gel column chromatography, C18 HPLC and chiral HPLC (iii) Flash silica gel chromatography (iv) Florisil column chromatography | 1H NMR, 13C NMR (2D NMR) HRESIMS, circular dichroism (CD), UV, LC-HRMS, MS/MS, GC–MS, and confirmation by phytochemical transformations. | Δ9-THC, Δ9-THC aldehyde, Cannabinoid esters, Cannabisol, Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabiphorol, Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabihexol, Cannabidiorcol, Cannabidihexol (CBDH) and Cannabidiphorol (CBDP), Cannabitwinol, Cannabinodivirin and cannabinodiol (CBND), Cannabichromene (CBC), 9a-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol, 7-oxo-9a-hydroxyhexa-hydrocannabinol, 10a-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol, and 10a-R-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol | [53,56,57,58,59,60] |
Ethyl acetate extracts | Cannabis resins, tinctures, and leaves | - | GC–MS and GC–FID analysis | Δ9-THC and Δ9-THCA | [61] |
Petroleum ether | (i) Cannabis tincture of Pakistani origin (ii) Brazilian C. sativa (iii) Cannabis leaves and flowers (Maryland and Czechoslovakian origin) (iv) Congo C. sativa (v) Hashish and Cannabis sativa | (i) Silicic acid column chromatography (ii) Silica gel and Florisil chromatography, preparative TLC | IR, NMR, MS, GC–MS confirmed by synthesis | Δ9-THCV, Δ9-THCO or Δ9-THC, Δ8-THC (Δ8-THCA), Cannabielsoin acid A (CBEAA,), Cannabielsoin acid B, and Cannabicyclovarin (CBLV) | [61,62,63,64,65,66,67] |
Benzene | (i) Fresh C. sativa leaves from Thailand (ii) Fresh tops and leaves of C. sativa (iii) Hemp | Polyamide and silica gel column chromatography | IR, UV, NMR, and comparing UV spectrum with that of derivatives | Δ9-THCVA, CBDV, THCV, CBCV, Cannabigerovarin CBGV, cannabigerovarinic acid (CBGVA), CBDA, cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA), Cannabicyclolic acid (CBLA), and Cannabichromenic acid (CBCA) | [49,68,69] |
Acetone extract | (i) Leaves of C. sativa (Mexican strain) (ii) Wax of decarboxylated aerial parts of C. sativa (Carma strain) (iii) Cannabis variety (carmagnola) | (i) Silica gel column chromatography (ii) Silica and alumina column chromatography, followed by normal phase (NP)-HPLC. (iii). Flash chromatography, over reverse-phased C18 silica gel followed by normal-phase HPLC | FAB–MS, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR), and ESI–MS semisyn-thesis. | Cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), dihydroxycannabigerol derivative (camagerol), Sesquicannabi-gerol, Cannabimovone, and Cannabioxepane | [70,71,72,73] |
Essential/volatile oils | |||||
Methanol dilutions | Cannabis sativa oil samples | Separation/quantitation of cannabinoids | Fast-GC–FID | CBD, CBN, and THC | [74] |
Essential oil | Fresh C. sativa L. from India | Fractional distillation and chromatography over alumina. | GC–MS and physico–chemical analyses | α-terpinene, β-phellandrene, γ-terpinene, α-terpinolene, α-pinene, β-pinene, camphene, linalool, α-terpineol, terpinene-4-ol, linalool oxide, and sabinene hydrate | [13] |
Volatile/essential oils | (i) Cannabis (Dutch and Turkish) (ii) Fresh leaves of Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica | (i) Hydrodistillation or through nitrogen extraction (ii) Hydrodistillation, steam distillation, and supercritical fluid extraction | Capillary gas chromato-graphy, GC–MS analysis | cis-β-ocimene, trans-β-ocimene, α-phellandrene, D3-carene, Δ4-carene, sabinene and α-thujene, caryophyllene, humulene, trans-β-bergamotene, cis-β–farnesene, δ–limonene, carophyllene oxide, linalool, trans-α- bergamotene, cis- β -farnesene, menthol, eucalyptol, and Carvone. | [13,75] |
Essential oil | Cannabis (marijuana fresh and dried buds) | Steamdistillation | GC–MS and GC–FID | Ipsdienol, cis-carveol, and cis-sabinene hydrate | [76] |
Essential oil | C. sativa resin | Minor terpenic component analysis | GC–MS and GC retention time | α-gurjunene, α-bisabolol, α-cedrene, α-cubebene, δ-cadinene, epi-β-santalene, farnesol, γ-cadinene, γ-elemene, γ-eudesmol, guaiol, (E,E)-α-farnesene, (Z)-β-farnesene, and farnesyl acetone | [77] |
Essential oil | Cannabis | Steam distillation and silica gel chromatography | GC, GC–MS | eugenol, methyleugenol, iso-eugenol, trans-anethol, and cis-anethol (simple phenols) | [78] |
Essential oil | C. sativa | Column chromatography of the essential oil | GC and GC–MS analyses | Iso-caryophyllene, β-selinene, selina-3,7(11)-diene, and selina-4(14),7(11)-diene | [13,79] |
Non-cannabinoid phenols | |||||
Ethanol/ethanolic extract | (i) South African Cannabis variant (ii) Saudi Arabia hashish (iii) Leaves of C. sativa (iv) High-potency Cannabis variety grown in Mississippi (v) Hemp pectin (vi). Cannabis roots (vii) Roots, stem, and leaves of a Mexican variant of Cannabis sativa | (i) Partitioning and chromatography on silica and polyamide columns (ii) Normal and reversed phase chromatographic techniques (iii) Purification by macro reticular resin, silica gel column chromatography, and Sephadex-LH-20 (iv) TLC, chromatography over alumina, and recrystallization (v) Partitioning and TLC eluted with chloroform:acetone:ammonia (1:1:1) (vi) Series of acid–base extractions and silica-gel chromatography followed by crystallization of the alkaloid from acetone | IR, GCMS, UV, 1D NMR (1H NMR, 13C NMR) and 2DNMR (COSY, HSQC, HMBC, and ROESY), ESI–MS, comparison with authentic samples, X-ray crystallography, and semi-synthesis | β-cannabispiranol, b-cannabispirol, 5-hydroxy-7-methoxyindan-1-spiro-cyclohexane, 7-hydroxy-5-methoxyindan-1-spiro-cyclohexane, and 5,7-dihydroxyindan-1-spiro-cyclohexane, Cannabispirketal and the glycoside, a-cannabispiranol-4′-O-β-glucopyranose, 3,4′,5-trihydroxy-dihydrostilbene, 4,5-dihydroxy-2,3,7-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene, 4-hydroxy-2,3,6,7-tetramethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene and 4,7-dimethoxy-1,2,5-trihydroxyphenanthrene, Rutin, friedelin (friedelan-3-one) and epifriedelanol, Anhydrocannabisativine and cannabisativine, α,α′-dihydro-3′,4,5′-trihydroxy-4′-methoxy-3-isopentenylstilbene, α,α′-dihydro-3,4′,5-trihydroxy-4-methoxy-2,6-diisopentenylstilbene, α,α′-dihydro-3′,4,5′-trihydroxy-4′-methoxy-2′,3-diisopentenylstilbene, α,α′-dihydro-3,4′,5-trihydroxy-4,5′-diisopentenylstilbene, and combretastatin B-2 | [32,33,55,80,81,82,83,84] |
Benzene | Dried leaves of Japanese cannabis | Chromatographed on a polyamide column followed by silica gel chromatography | IR, 1H NMR, MS, UV. | Cannabispirol and acetyl Cannabispirol | [85] |
Acetone | C. sativa (CARMA) | Gravity column chromatography on silica gel and purified by crystallization from ether and HPLC | Identified according to its physical and spectroscopic properties and synthesis | Debinoben (1,4-phenanthrenequinone) | [86] |
Sequential extraction (Hexane, EtOAc, CH2Cl2, EtOH, EtOH/H2O, and H2O | High-potency variety of C. sativa (Mississippi) | VLC, silica gel column chromatography, and RP–HPLC | 1D and 2D NMR, IR analysis | acetoxy-6-geranyl-3-n-pentyl-1,4-benzoquinone, 4,5-dihydroxy-2,3,6-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene, 4-hydroxy-2,3,6,7-tetramethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene, 4,7-dimethoxy-1,2,5-trihydroxyphenanthrene, Cannflavin C and β-sitosteryl-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-2′-O-palmitate, α-cannabispiranol, Chrysoeriol, 6-prenylapigenin, and Cannflavin A and β-acetyl cannabispiranol | [55] |
Hexane extract | Leaves of Cannabis sativa | Isolation by normal-phase chromatography followed by C18-HPLC | NMR and ESI–MS analysis | Prenylspirodinone and 7-O-methyl-cannabispirone | [55,87] |
Dichloro-methane extract | (i) Decarboxy-lated C. sativa hemp (ii). Thai Cannabis sativa leaves (iii) Panamanian variety of cannabis | C18 flash chromatography, followed by silica gel gravity column chromatography and HPLC | HR–ESIMS and NMR (1H, 13C, HSQC, and HMBC) data, X-ray crystallography, and confirmation by hydrogenation | Isocannabispiradienone and a-Cannabispiranol, Cannabispira-dienone, and Cannabidihydro-phenanthrene (Cannithrene1 and Cannithrene2) | [88,89] |
Methanol/methanolic extract | (i) Branches and leaves of hemp (ii) Pollen grains of Mexican variety of C. sativa (iii) Dried leaves of South African and Indian cannabis sativa (iv) Panamanian variant of C. sativa (v) Leaves and branches of C. sativa | (i) TLC, silica gel column chromatography, normal-phase preparative HPLC, and Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography (ii) Partitioning, silica gel chromatography, Sephadex LH-20 chromatography, semi preparative LC | MS, 1D and 2D NMR, UV experiments, IR, X-ray crystallography and confirmation by total synthesis | Rutin, Quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside, kaempferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside, apigenin-7-O-α-L-rhamnoside, apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, luteolin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyl-2-C-β-D-glucopyranosyl xanthone, vitexin, orientin, apigenin-6,8-di-C-β-D-glucopyranoside, vitexin-2″-O-α-L-rhamnoside, orientin-2″-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, quebrachitol, inositol and uracil, kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside (196) and quercetin-3-O-sophoroside, cannabispirone; cannabispirenone, Cannabispiran, Isocannabispiran Canniprene, Cannabistilbene I and Cannabistibene II, and 2,3,5,6-tetramethoxy 9,10-dihydrophenanthrenedione | [90,91,92,93,94] |
Mixture of hydro-alcoholic and organic solvents | C. sativa inflorescence (Ferimon, Uso-31, Felina 32, and Fedora 17 cultivars) | Metabolic and chemical profiling to identify and quantify compounds of different classes | NMR, GC–MS, UHPLC, and HPLC–PDA | Sugars, organic acids, amino acids, cannabinoids, terpenoids, phenols, tannins, flavonoids (Quercetin, Naringenin, and Naringin) and biogenic amines | [35,37] |
Diethyl ether | Stem exudate (greenhouse-grown C. sativa) | TLC and acid hydrolysis of the exudate | 1H NMR and GC–MS | Phloroglucinol β-D-glucoside | [95] |
Isolated Bioactive Compound | Bioactivity/Uses | References |
---|---|---|
Tetrahydrocannabinol THC | Antioxidant, anti-pruritic, and anti-inflammatory effects | [29,100] |
Cannabidiol CBD | Anti-convulsive, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive properties, antioxidant, and anti-psychotic effects | [101,102,103] |
Cannabigerol CBG | Anti-fungal effects, anti-cancer, anti-depressant, mild anti-hypertensive agent, analgesic, and anti-erythemic effects | [29,104] |
Cannabichromene CBC | Anti-inflammatory and analgesic | [29] |
Cannabinol CBN | Sedative, anti-convulsant, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, and anti-MRSA activity | [29] |
Tetrahydrocannabivarin THCV | Anti-convulsant | [29] |
Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid THCA | Immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-neoplastic activity, and antiemetic effects | [29,105] |
Cannabidavarin CBDV | Anti-convulsant (anti-epileptic) properties and anti-emetic properties | [106,107] |
Cannabidiolic acid CBDA | Anti-emetic effects | [104,108,109,110] |
β-Myrcene | Anti-inflammatory and analgesic sedative agent | [7,29,111] |
D-Limonene | Strongly anxiolytic, anti-depressant, antibiotic, and anti-cancer agent | [7,29] |
β-Ocimene | Anti-convulsant activity, anti-fungal activity, anti-tumor activity, and pest resistance | [112,113] |
γ-Terpinene | Anti-inflammatory activity, antioxidant, and anti-proliferative activity | [114,115] |
α-Terpinene | Antioxidant | [29] |
α-Pinene | Anti-inflammatory, bronchodilator, anti-microbial, and anxiolytic effects | [7,11,29,116] |
Linalool | Analgesic and anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, anti-depressant, anti-glutamatergic, anti-leishmanial activity, anticancer agent, anti-nociceptive, and anti-depressant effects | [111,117,118,119] |
α-Phellandrene | Anti-nociceptive, anti-depressant, anti-arthritic and allergic, and anti-hyperalgesic effects | [120,121,122] |
Terpinolene | Anti-fungal and larvicidal, anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory antioxidant, and anti-cancer effects | [123,124] |
β-Caryophyllene | Cardio-protective, hepato-protective, gastro-protective, neuro-protective, nephro-protective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-pruritic, and immunomodulatory activities | [7,125,126,127] |
Caryophyllene Oxide | Anti-fungal, insecticidal/anti-feedant, and anti-platelet effects | [29] |
β-Elemene | Anti-cancer and anti-tumor | [128] |
Guaiol | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, diaphoretic, diuretic, and laxative effects | [29,129] |
Friedelin | Anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, and anti-tuberculosis agent | [130,131] |
Epifriedelanol | Antioxidant | [132] |
Cannflavin A and B | Anti-inflammatory, neoplastic, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-parasitic, and anti-viral agent | [4,7,29,99] |
Apigenin | Anxiolytic and estrogenic properties, anti-tumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-osteoporosis, and immune regulation effects | [4,133] |
Vitexin and Isovitexin | Antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-hyperalgesic, and neuroprotective effects | [134] |
Quercetin | Anti-cancer/anti-proliferator, antioxidative/anti-aging, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, cardio-protective, skin-protective, anti-coagulant, and anti-platelet effects | [135] |
Luteolin | Neuroprotective effects, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects | [136] |
Lignans | Antioxidant, anti-viral, anti-diabetic, anti-tumorigenic, and anti-obesity activities | [4] |
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Odieka, A.E.; Obuzor, G.U.; Oyedeji, O.O.; Gondwe, M.; Hosu, Y.S.; Oyedeji, A.O. The Medicinal Natural Products of Cannabis sativa Linn.: A Review. Molecules 2022, 27, 1689. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051689
Odieka AE, Obuzor GU, Oyedeji OO, Gondwe M, Hosu YS, Oyedeji AO. The Medicinal Natural Products of Cannabis sativa Linn.: A Review. Molecules. 2022; 27(5):1689. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051689
Chicago/Turabian StyleOdieka, Anwuli Endurance, Gloria Ukalina Obuzor, Opeoluwa Oyehan Oyedeji, Mavuto Gondwe, Yiseyon Sunday Hosu, and Adebola Omowunmi Oyedeji. 2022. "The Medicinal Natural Products of Cannabis sativa Linn.: A Review" Molecules 27, no. 5: 1689. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051689