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Review

Dioscorea spp.: Comprehensive Review of Antioxidant Properties and Their Relation to Phytochemicals and Health Benefits

by
Aušra Adomėnienė
and
Petras Rimantas Venskutonis
*
Department of Food Science and Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilėnų˛ pl. 19, LT-50254 Kaunas, Lithuania
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2022, 27(8), 2530; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27082530
Submission received: 1 February 2022 / Revised: 25 March 2022 / Accepted: 8 April 2022 / Published: 17 April 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Natural Products Chemistry)
Browse Figure
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Dioscorea, consisting of over 600 species, is the most important genus in the Dioscoreaceae family; however, the practically used plants, which are commonly called yam, are restricted to a remarkably smaller number of species. Numerous studies have reported the high nutritional value of yam, particularly as an alternative source of starch and some important micronutrients. Several Dioscorea species are widely used for various medicinal purposes as well. In many studies, the bioactivities and health benefits of Dioscorea extracts and other preparations have been related to the presence of phytochemicals, which possess antioxidant properties; they are related mainly to radical-scavenging capacity in chemical assays and positive effects on the endogenous antioxidant system in cell-based and in vivo assays. Considering the increasing number of publications on this topic and the absence of comprehensive and focused review papers on antioxidant potential, this article summarizes the results of studies on the antioxidant properties of Dioscorea spp. and their relation to phytochemicals and health benefits. A comprehensive survey of the published articles has revealed that the majority of studies have been performed with plant tubers (rhizomes, roots), while reports on leaves are rather scarce. In general, leaf extracts demonstrated stronger antioxidant potential than tuber preparations. This may be related to the differences in phytochemical composition: saponins, phenanthrenes and, for some pigment-rich species (purple yams), anthocyanins are important constituents in tubers, while phenolic acids and flavonoids are characteristic phytochemicals in the leaves. The review may assist in explaining ethnopharmacological knowledge on the health benefits of Dioscorea plants and their preparations; moreover, it may foster further studies of poorly investigated species, as well as their wider application in develo** new functional foods and nutraceuticals.

1. Introduction

The role of fruits, vegetables and botanicals, as natural and sustainable sources of valuable nutrients and health-beneficial substances, has been very important for humankind since ancient times. Due to the vast biodiversity in the plant kingdom and the large number of poorly investigated plants, the trend in the search, evaluation and application of natural preparations—as well as the development of new products—remains an important issue in various industries, including foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Moreover, the importance of this topic is increasing in the era of functional foods, nutraceuticals and personalized nutrition. In addition, the shift in consumer preferences towards ‘naturalness’ has also played an important role in the popularity of plant origin preparations.
Dioscoreaceae, with nine genera and about 715 species, is considered one of the earliest families of the plant kingdom (Magnoliophyta) [1]. In terms of uses, Dioscorea, consisting of over 600 species, is the most important genus in this family. The plants are perennial herbaceous and dicotyledonous, and bloom with faint flowers and have large roots and/or rhizomes. Dioscorea plants are common in tropical and subtropical regions; however, many of them have successfully adapted to different habitats and, nowadays, are common in other climatic regions as well. Regardless, a large number of existing species—practically used plants, which are commonly called yam—are restricted to a smaller number of species; among them are D. batatas, D. japonica, D. bulbifera, D. opposita, D. tokoro, D. nipponica and D. alata [2]. For instance, D. bulbifera L. (air potato) is native in Asia, North Florida [3], and Georgia (www.gaeppc.org/list/ [4], accessed on 11 November 2021); D. alata L. (water yam, winged/white yam) originates from Southeast Asia [5] but is also found in Africa (FAOSTAT, Database 2021 [6], accessed on 11 November 2021), Georgia (www.gaeppc.org/list/ [4], accessed on 11 November 2021), and America (www.eddmaps.org [7], accessed on 12 November 2021); D. oppositifolia, syn. D. opposita, D. batata, D. polystachya Turcz. (Chinese yam), is native to Asia and is also found in eastern North America.
It should be noted that the occurrence of invasive plant species, albeit beneficial ones, poses a threat to native species and habitats. For example, D. oppositifolia (syn. D. polystachya) is recognized in North America (www.iucngish.org/gisd/, accessed on 22 November 2021, Global Invasive Species Database, 2021 [8]) as a forest or agricultural weed, which can compete with the native species, especially in coastal habitats; while widespread in Africa, D. alata is one of the most valued foods. In general, due to the nutritional and therapeutic benefits and economic income, the contribution of yam to food security is significant in some regions, especially in sub-Saharan Africa [9]. Dioscorea spp. are also known for its association with low-cost food culture, traditional Chinese medicine, modern western medicine, and the pharmaceutical industry. The peculiarities of the diet and traditions of this genus of plant species in many cultures are closely related to the historical and religious aspects of life (FAOSTAT, Database, 2021 [6]), which began much earlier than scientific research. It should be noted that different yam species accumulate a large variety of biologically active compounds and, therefore, various anatomical parts of the plants have been used for different purposes. For instance, D alata, D. japonica Thunb., and the rhizomes of D. schimperiana [10,11,12] are valued as a source of starch in the development of flour, pasta, and desserts.
Traditional medicine mentions such species as D. bulbifera in the treatment of goiter, skin infections, and oncological diseases [13]; D. nipponica in the treatment of arthritis, cough, asthma, and circulatory disorders [14]; D. villosa (wild yam) in the reduction of intestinal disorders [15]; and D. birmanica in the treatment of chronic diseases, whose development is associated with long-term oxidative stress [16]. Food supplements used in modern medicine as natural alternatives to hormone replacement therapy, in the form of powders, capsules, and herbal extracts, are made from the roots of D. villosa; a traditional herbal preparation made from D. nipponica root is used to regulate the immune system and reduce pain and inflammation [14], while the saponins extracted from D. septembola are used in China to treat gout [17].
In addition to the well-known species with high nutritional, economic and medicinal value, it is worth mentioning the other less-known but valuable species that can enrich the diet and improve health, namely: D. birmanica Prain and Burkill [16]; D. hamiltonii Hook. f syn. D. persimilis [18,19]; D. hispida [20]; D. pubera Blume; D. wallichii Hook [21], and others. Some species are poisonous but have healing properties, e.g., D. hispida, which is a promising alternative to conventional chemotherapy [22,23].
Secondary metabolites identified in Dioscorea spp. are often used in physiological and molecular studies. The well-known natural steroid saponin diosgenin has been used in the pharmaceutical industry as a chemical model in the development and/or complete synthesis of hormonal drugs. This metabolite is also reported to reduce oxidative stress damage, may protect the myocardium from ischemia-induced injury [24], and modulates the intestinal microbiota [24,25]. Dioscin and gracillin are also very important metabolites, demonstrating anticancer [26,27] and antioxidant effects. Trillin, found in D. nipponica [28], D. oppositifolia, and D. hamiltonii [29], is a pharmacologically viable steroid saponin with a broad spectrum of physiological effects in the cells, e.g., increasing superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and lowering lipid peroxidation activity and the oxidative stress response [28].
From nutritional and economic points of view, carbohydrates are likely the most important constituents of yam tubers, which are used in the development of foods as bulk ingredients; however, their content in the leaves is rather small. On the other hand, the leaves, as a rule, accumulate larger amounts of bioactive phytochemicals, e.g., polyphenolic antioxidants, including phenolic acids (chlorogenic, syringic, vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric), flavonoids (quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, catechin, anthocyanins), etc. Aromatic phenanthrene derivatives, demonstrating antifungal [30] and antioxidant effects [31,32], have also been reported in different species, e.g., D. batatas [30,32], D. rotundata [30], and D. communis [31].
As may be judged from the records present in various databases (Table 1), Dioscorea plants have been widely studied, and the published results have been reviewed in numerous articles.
The topic of Dioscorea antioxidants has also been the focus of many studies; however, the reviews on this topic are less abundant and fragmental.
Obidiegwu et al. [9] published the most comprehensive review on the nutritional and therapeutic potential of the Dioscorea genus. This review covers the nutritional value (starch, fiber, protein, fat, minerals), the profile of bioactive compounds, the therapeutic potential and health benefits (anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity and anti-hypercholesterolaemic and antimicrobial activities), the management of degenerative disease, menopausal symptoms, and its use as a pharmaceutical excipient. Regarding bioactive compounds, the review includes separate sections on steroidal saponin, dioscorin, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic acids and others, while the antioxidant properties of yam are discussed in a very short section. In addition, it refers to seven publications from 2019, while in the period of 2019–2021, fifty-four new articles related to Dioscorea antioxidants have been published.
Padhan and Panda [33], in their review on underutilized and neglected yams, emphasized their potential for improving nutritional security and providing health benefits. The authors focused their article on the ethnobotany of Dioscorea spp., which are consumed by tribal people, and briefly highlighted their nutritional, anti-nutritional, and pharmacological properties. Kumar et al. [34] reviewed the traditional uses and ethnopharmacological potential of wild edible Dioscorea tubers by the local people of the Similipal Biosphere Reserve in India, whereas George et al. [35] highlighted the importance of African yam bean. Salehi et al. [36] reviewed Dioscorea plants as rich in nutrients and pharmacologically valuable constituents; however, their antioxidant activities were summarized in a very short section.
Some reviews were focused on individual Dioscorea species and important groups of nutrients and bioactives. For instance, Bhujbal et al. [37] reviewed the pharmacological activity of D. floribunda, and Semwal et al. [38] focused on the traditional uses, bioactive compounds and biological activities of D. deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Huang et al. [39] focused their paper on the isolation, structure and bioactivities of yam mucilage polysaccharides and included a short section on antioxidant properties, while Anwar et al. [40] included yam tubers in their review on water-soluble non-starch polysaccharides of root and tuber crops. Zhang et al. [41] focused their review on the development of proteins and peptides from Dioscorea tubers with therapeutic potential. Petropoulos et al. [42] reviewed the antioxidant properties and health benefits of colored root vegetables, which included a section on yam pigments as well. Finally, Yang et al. [43] reviewed the pharmacological activities of dioscin, and Toth et al. [44] reviewed those of phenanthrenes.
The survey of published review articles reveals that a comprehensive review on Dioscorea antioxidant properties has not been published until now, while the pool of data on this topic is quite large. Therefore, the main task of this review was to collect the available results on Dioscorea antioxidant potential, the presence of the main chemical groups of antioxidants, and their relations to health benefits. It should be noted that ethnopharmacological properties and medicinal uses are not covered in this review unless they are closely related to the antioxidant activities.

2. In Vitro Antioxidant Potential and Total Amounts of Phytochemicals

2.1. Evaluation of Crude Extracts and Their Fractions

The antioxidant properties of Dioscorea spp. have been studied using various in vitro chemical methods, cell cultures and in vivo assays, mainly using rat and mouse models. The results of the in vitro chemical assays are summarized in Table 2.
It can be observed that antioxidant properties have been determined using several chemical assays and expressed in various units, e.g., the equivalent amount of the reference antioxidant (trolox, ascorbic acid, catechin, α-tocopherol); the fresh (pfw) and dry weight (pdw) of plant material and/or extract (edw); the effective inhibitory concentration (IC50, in some cases abbreviated as EC50) values of the extract or its solution; or the percentage inhibition at the applied extract concentrations. In the latter case, the results are very difficult to compare because it is necessary to know the procedure of the sample preparation for the assays, particularly their concentrations in the solutions. Therefore, if the reader would like to know more details, it is suggested to download the full article. The values expressed in the reference antioxidant equivalents in pdw/pfw and/or edw are the most convenient; the former indicates the antioxidant potential of the whole plant material used in the assay, while the latter is directly related to the antioxidant properties of the isolated extracts and fractions.
This section also includes the results reported for the total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total monomeric anthocyanins (TAC) and total saponins (TS) (Table 3). These values are determined mainly using spectrophotometric methods, and—depending on the plant material (species, cultivar), its composition, processing and extractions methods—may be rather indicative. It can be clearly observed from the recently reported values for MeOH extracts of D. bulbifera stem tubers (Table 3) that TPC and TFC values were determined to be remarkably lower than the total flavonols, which belong to one of the flavonoid subclasses [92]. Adeniran and Sonibare [67] reported somewhat similar findings; TFC values were remarkably higher than TPC ones in the four analyzed Dioscorea samples. TPC measurement with the Folin–Ciocalteu reagent is based on a single-electron-transfer reaction, which can proceed within the reaction system and present various nonphenolic compounds as well. In addition, the total content values in many publications are presented together with radical scavenging and other antioxidant capacity assays; therefore, it is reasonable to review all these values in one chapter. Nevertheless, the values of total phytochemical content are summarized separately in Table 3.
Several studies compared the antioxidant potential of different Dioscorea spp. and cultivars of the same species and demonstrated that the differences may be quite remarkable. For instance, Padhan et al. [101] reported the flavonoid, total antioxidant capacity and in vitro antioxidant activity of eight wild (D. oppositifolia, D. hamiltonii, D. bulbifera, D. pubera, D. pentaphylla, D. wallichii, D. glabra, D. hispida) and one cultivated (D. alata) yam tuber from Koraput (India): TPC, TFC, and total antioxidant capacity ranged from 2.19 to 9.62 mg GAE/g pdw, 0.62–0.85 mg QE/g pdw and 1.63–5.59%, respectively; meanwhile, the IC50 values were 77.9–1164, 101.2–1031.6, 27.0–1022.6 and 47.1–690 µg/mL for DPPH•, ABTS•+, •O2−, and •NO scavenging capacity, respectively. The TPC and TFC values of D. deltoidea, D. prazeri, D. bulbifera, D. pentaphylla, D. esculenta, and six cultivars of D. alata were in the ranges of 115.31–1628.50 mg/100 g pdw and 17.57–148.46 mg/100 g pdw, with D. prazeri being the richest source of polyphenolics [102]. Bhandari and Kawabata [96] reported that the TPC of D. bulbifera, D. versicolor, D. deltoidei, and D. triphylla from Nepal ranged from 13 ± 1 to 166 ± 10 mg/100 g fpw, while the differences in antioxidant characteristics were less remarkable, particularly in chelating ferrous ion, reducing power, and total antioxidant capacity. Jimenez-Montero and Silvera [103] compared six varieties of D. bulbifera (air potato) from Panama and found that the variations in ascorbic acid, antioxidant capacity, and TPC were not remarkable (6.0–8.1 mg/100 g, IC50 7.85–8.87, and 175–201 mg GAE/100 g, respectively). However, the cultivars of the same species may differ significantly. For instance, the TPC, TFC, and TAC values of the flour of the Kulonprogo cultivar of D. alata, determined by extraction with acid and with 5% acetic acid water, were higher than those of the Malang cultivar [49]. Alcohol and ester extracts of yellow fresh-cut yam (D. opposita) exhibited higher ORAC and DPPH• scavenging capacity than white fresh-cut yam [69].
The majority of studies used yam; however, some of them were performed with different anatomical parts of Dioscorea as well, including the flesh, peels and leaves. Thus, Alsawalha et al. [104] reported that MeOH extract from D. villosa leaf powder demonstrated strong antioxidant capacity in a FRAP and DPPH• scavenging assay in a dose-dependent manner; at a concentration of 0.1 mg/mL, the inhibition of DPPH• was >90%, while the optical density in the FRAP assay was 1.3 (2 for ascorbic acid). Mondal et al. [105] compared MeOH and EA extracts of D. pentaphylla leaves and found that TPC, DPPH• and •NO scavenging was higher for the former, while the latter had almost 4-fold higher TFC and TAC.
Yams contain various nutrients and phytochemicals, which differ in their chemical structures, molecular weight, polarity and other characteristics. Some studies fractionated yam materials and extracts using different polarity solvents. Duan et al. [60] reported only slight differences between n-BuOH and EA extracts of D. batatas, which were evaluated using different in vitro antioxidant assays. In the case of a thermally treated product, EA extract was more effective in chelating ferrous ion and scavenging •NO, while n-BuOH extract better inhibited linoleic acid peroxidation [59]. Duan et al. [56] compared yam (D. batatas) extracts isolated with 70% MeOH, 70% EtOH and CF–MeOH (2:1, v/v). MeOH extract was most effective at chelating ferrous ion, •NO scavenging and the β-carotene bleaching assay, while CF–MeOH extract better inhibited linoleic acid peroxidation. Ghosh et al. [64] extracted the bulbs of D. bulbifera with cold 70% EtOH, and sequentially with PE, EA and MeOH; the latter extract contained higher TPC, while the EA fraction was richer in TFC (Table 3). The antioxidant properties of EA and alcoholic extracts were stronger compared with the PE extract. Park et al. [89] extracted bulbils of Danma (D. japonica) and Jangma (D. batatas) with MeOH, and the crude extracts were re-extracted with CF, EA, n-BuOH, and water. ** new functional foods and nutraceuticals. In addition, it may be noted that, until now, published articles have focused mainly on the several most widely used species. A large number of Dioscorea spp. remain poorly investigated, and present a large pool for further studies.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://mdpi.longhoe.net/article/10.3390/molecules27082530/s1. The list of abbreviations.

Author Contributions

P.R.V.: conceptualization, collecting and sorting out published materials, writing the draft manuscript (50%), data curation, reviewing and editing (100%); A.A.: compiling tables and figures, writing the draft manuscript (50%). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interests.

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Molecules 27 02530 g001 550
Figure 1. The structures of the main important Dioscorea secondary metabolites.
Figure 1. The structures of the main important Dioscorea secondary metabolites.
Molecules 27 02530 g001
Table
Table 1. Search results for available publications on Dioscorea (accessed on 21 December 2021).
Table 1. Search results for available publications on Dioscorea (accessed on 21 December 2021).
Search WordsWoSScience DirectPubMed
TotalReviewTotalReviewTotalReview
Dioscorea (topic)47792185171553166561
Dioscorea (title)215224508293716
Dioscorea + antioxidant (topic + topic)509262574120312
Dioscorea + antioxidant (title + topic)237710921081
Dioscorea + antioxidant (title + title)731na *na00
* na, not applicable.
Table
Table 2. Antioxidant characteristics of various Dioscorea spp.
Table 2. Antioxidant characteristics of various Dioscorea spp.
Species: Plant PartSolvent, Analyzed ProductAntioxidant Characteristics Ref.
D. alata (2)/D. bulbifera/D. batatas/D. nipponica: rhizomeMeOH-EDPPH• (IC50, µg/mL): 142.30 ± 2.58
and 486.43 ± 8.45/421.70 ± 17.24/432.66 ± 8.07
and 403.16 ± 14.59/371.64 ± 12.59
(AA, 10.77 ± 0.13; α-Toc, 40.24 ± 6.98; BHT, 11.92 ± 10.67)		[45]
D. alata: dried tubersEtOH (80%)-EDPPH• (IC50, mg/gm dw): 0.603 ± 0.010
ABTS•+ (IC50, mg/gm dw): 0.136 ± 0.001		[46]
D. alata: flour/pasteH2O 1:10 (w/v)DPPH• (IC50, mg/mL): 18.52 ± 2.1/17.86 ± 0.9
ABTS•+ (mmol TE/100 g): 1.04 ± 0.00/1.15 ± 0.01
Fe3+ RP (mmol AAE/100 g): 0.96 ± 0.06/1.18 ± 0.10
•OH (%): 49.37 ± 1.52/53.88 ± 4.59
Fe2+ chelating (%): 11.13 ± 2.77/18.10 ± 1.38		[47]
D. alata: purple yamEffect of processingDPPH• (%): 79.08 (raw), 61.75 (blanched), 40.75 (washed), 32.16 (dried), 30.01 (flour)[48]
D. alata: flour of tubersH2O + AcA (5%)-E DPPH• (EC50, mg/mL): 2.55 to 8.70, depending on origin and treatment [49]
D. alata: bulbMeOH-EDPPH• (IC50, μg/mL): 14.68 (AA 24.95)
Fe3+ RP (max absorption at 1 mg/mL): 1.317; BHT 1.472 		[50]
D. alata (2 var);
D. doryophora;
commercial		Yam flourORAC (μmol TE/g): Tai-nung, 119.34; Ta-shan, 65.42
Hang-chun 60.63
103.17		[51]
D. alata: dried tubers of Chinese purple yamEtOH (80%)-E: flesh/peelDPPH• (IC50, µg de/mL): 183.4 ± 5.3/47.7 ± 2.7;
FRAP (mg FeSO4·7H2O/g de): 86.5 ± 1.6/144.5 ± 8.5
ABTS•+ (mg TE/g de): 108.1 ± 2.8/357.7 ± 8.4
•O2− (IC50, μg de/mL): 457.5 ± 20.8/162.2 ± 9.8
ChelA (%): 24.3 ± 1.6/21.4 ± 0.2		[52]
EA fr: flesh/peelDPPH•: 13.9 ± 1.1/8.5 ± 0.2; FRAP: 630.1 ± 19.4/534.4 ± 35.3
ABTS•+: 1326.1 ± 17.3/1578.1 ± 15.5; •O2−: 78.2 ± 1.2/30.3 ± 0.3
ChelA: 15.1 ± 1.1/8.5 ± 1.0
BuOH fr: flesh/peelDPPH•: 245.1 ± 32.1/43.8 ± 3.3; FRAP: 83.9 ± 5.3/162.1 ± 3.0; ABTS•+: 111.8 ± 5.5/448.4 ± 9.0; •O2−: 333.2 ± 10.6/147.9 ± 4.1
ChelA: 0.0 ± 0.1/34.3 ± 3.2
HX fr: flesh/peelDPPH•: 632.0 ± 26.9/55.0 ± 0.9; FRAP: 42.3 ± 1.2/97.3 ± 11.2; ABTS•+: 39.8 ± 1.6/242.3 ± 14.4; •O2−: 1387.5 ± 110.3/237.9 ± 12.2; ChelA: 32.0 ± 2.2/34.1 ± 1.2
Remaining H2O fr: flesh/peelDPPH•: 1532.7 ± 123/225.1 ± 12.9; FRAP: 8.5 ± 0.5/29.1 ± 1.7; ABTS•+: 12.2 ± 0.3/74.0 ± 2.9; •O2−: 874.5 ± 18.2/461.1 ± 14.1
ChelA: 50.4 ± 5.1/29.1 ± 0.6
D. alata: tubers (3 cultivars from Taiwan)Hot pressurized EtOH-E: flesh/peel DPPH• (EC50, µg/mL): ND/86.6–305.4[53]
fr of HX/CF/EA/BuOH/H2O Flesh: 328–2360/144.6–549.4/112.8–343.6/288.1–1526/ND
Peel: 133.0–932.7/45.8–136.6/14.5–38.8/67.2–678.3/ND
D. batatas: tubers, 3 purified phenanthrenesEtOH (95%)-E flesh/peelDPPH• (IC50, mg/mL): 7.68/0.944
ABTS•+ (IC50, mg/mL): 3.43/0.771		[54]
2,7-dOH-4,6-dMetOP/6,7-dOH -2,4-dMetOP/6-OH-2,4,7-tMetOPDPPH• (IC50, mg/mL): 0.0645/0.154/0.566
ABTS•+ (IC50, mg/mL): 0.0482/0.153/0.297
D. batatas: dried and smashed into raw yam mealsEtOH (70%)/MeOH (70%)/CF: MeOH (2:1)DPPH• (IC50, mg/mL): 1.22 ± 0.03/1.34 ± 0.02/0.71 ± 0.00
ABTS•+ (IC50, mg/mL): 2.08 ± 0.20/2.24 ± 0.10/1.15 ± 0.05
FRAP (μM Fe2+ at 1.0 mg/mL): 108.3 ± 0.0/91.67 ± 0.48/220.6 ± 0.7		[55]
EtOH (70%)/MeOH (70%)/CF: MeOH (2:1)Fe2+ chelating: 0.12 ± 0.02/0.09 ± 0.01/0.97 ± 0.03
NO•: 0.46 ± 0.02/0.45 ± 0.00/0.55 ± 0.02
β-carotene bleaching: 0.15 ± 0.04/0.07 ± 0.01/0.14 ± 0.01
LPI: 0.50 ± 0.01/0.58 ± 0.00/0.05 ± 0.01(IC50, mg/mL for all)		[56]
D. batatas: raw yamBuOH/EAABTS•+ (IC50, mg/mL): 0.70 ± 0.01/0.45 ± 0.01
DPPH• (IC50, mg/mL): 0.50 ± 0.00/0.34 ± 0.01; FRAP (μM Fe2+) ~347/~560 at 1 mg/mL 		[57]
D. batatas: raw yamBuOH/EAFe2+ chelating: 0.64 ± 0.01/0.70 ± 0.01
NO•: 0.53 ± 0.01/0.26 ± 0.03;
NO2 scavenging: 1.92 ± 0.03/3.92 ± 1.00
β-carotene bleaching: 0.08 ± 0.01/0.05 ± 0.01
LPI: 0.02 ± 0.01/0.01 ± 0.00 (IC50, mg/mL for all assays)		[58]
D. batatas: thermally treated yamBuOH/EAABTS•+ (IC50, mg/mL) 1.31 ± 0.05/0.98 ± 0.02
DPPH• (IC50, mg/mL) 0.70 ± 0.00/0.74 ± 0.01
FRAP (μM Fe2+): 237.86 ± 4.07/244.05 ± 9.37		[59]
D. batatas: tubers (thermally treated yam)BuOH/EAFe2+ chelating: 0.11 ± 0.02/0.81 ± 0.01
•NO: 0.73 ± 0.01/0.45 ± 0.02
NO2 scavenging: 3.78 ± 1.24/3.87 ± 0.40
β-carotene bleaching: 0.11 ± 0.01/0.11 ± 0.00
LPI: 0.02 ± 0.01/0.05 ± 0.01 (IC50, mg/mL for all assays)		[60]
D. birmanica: freeze-dried rhizomesEtOH (95%) extract (EC50, μg/mL) DPPH•, 8.53 ± 1.32; ABTS•+, 21.56 ± 1.72; •O2−, 50.91 ± 0.39; •NO, 26.93 ± 4.79; LPI: 33.37 ± 2.88.
FRAP (mg Fe2+ eq/g extract): 406.96 ± 11.33
Fe2+ chelating (EC50, mg/mL): 1.06 ± 0.03		[16]
D. bulbifera: tuberMeOH (80%)DPPH• (IC50, μg/mL): 261.09; AA, 10.65; •O2−, 2089.3; Q, 17.01[61]
D. bulbifera: bulbilsEtOH/H2O crude extractsDPPH• (IC50, μM): 34.14 ± 0.68/13.20 ± 0.77
•OH (IC50, μM): 79.00 ± 0.78/>100		[62]
CF/EA/H2O fr of EtOHDPPH•: 13.35 ± 0.37/14.00 ± 0.36/18.83 ± 0.46
•OH: >100/37.04 ± 0.50/39.31 ± 0.42
D. bulbifera: leavesMeOH/EA/HX extractsDPPH• (%): 79.0 ± 0.31/23.2 ± 0.05/11.5 ± 0.31
ABTS•+ (mg AAE/g): 65.6 ± 0.35/59.5 ± 0.10/14.9 ± 0.05
FRAP (mM/Fe2+g dw): 31.34 ± 2.06/10.98 ± 0.64/9.50 ± 0.48		[63]
D. bulbifera: bulbPE/EA/MeOH (sequentially)/EtOH (70%)DPPH• (%): 61.82 ± 1.55/82.79 ± 1.24/76.11 ± 1.26/80.64 ± 1.24
•O−2 (%): 26.88 ± 1.28/57.60 ± 0.81/59.75 ± 0.98/54.76 ± 1.20
O2− (%): 28.30 ± 0.36/59.24 ± 1.44/59.65 ± 1.41/57.34 ± 1.41
•NO (%): 20.57 ± 0.57/54.55 ± 0.21/57.59 ± 0.64/49.85 ± 0.16
•OH (%): 44.51 ± 0.49/66.67 ± 0.73/76.11 ± 1.26/64.23 ± 1.25		[64]
D. bulbifera: tubersPre-purified/crude polysaccharideDPPH• (mg IE/g): 0.28 ± 0.01/0.94 ± 0.02
ABTS•+ (mg TE/g): 623.33 ± 4.71/165.00 ± 2.36
FRAP (mM Fe2+/g): 0.175 ± 0.001/1.056 ± 0.001		[65]
D. bulbifera: tubersPre-soaking in 0–10% oligosaccharideDPPH• (0.1 mL): ~17–27%
ABTS•+ (0.1 mL): ~23–45% (determined from figure)		[66]
D. hirtiflora: tubersSuccessively DCM/EA/MeOHDPPH• (IC50, μg/mL): 49.7 ± 0.97/11.9 ± 0.85/11.8 ± 0.23[67]
D. dumetorum89.0 ± 5.10/103.2 ± 6.9/137 ± 5.90
D. bulbifera (mauve)46.7 ± 1.57/14.6 ± 0.90/29.9 ± 0.68
D. bulbifera (yellow)57.7 ± 1.32/64.1 ± 0.89/68.6 ± 8.50 (AA, 6.90; GA, 8.60)
D. caucasica: freeze-dried leavesEtOH (70%)DPPH• (mg TE/g edw): 279 ± 4
ABTS•+ (mg TE/g edw): 880 ± 10		[68]
D. communis: rhizomeDE/EA crude extractsDPPH•: 8.7 ± 0.9/40.1 ± 0.2; ABTS•+, 7.6 ± 0.0/11.6 ± 0.0; FRAP, 44.8 ± 3.6/79.0 ± 0.0; CUPRAC, 10.01 ± 0.2/20.8 ± 0.5 (all IC50, µg/mL)[31]
3 purified phenanthrenesDPPH•, <200/61.2 ± 1.1/6.0 ± 0.2; ABTS•+, <200/19.60 ± 0.0/2.4 ± 0.1; FRAP, <50/<50/9.9 ± 1.0; CUPRAC, <200/194.0 ± 0/15.0 ± 0.5 (all IC50, µg/mL)
D. opposita: fresh-cut yamH2O/MeOH/EA-EORAC (µmol TE/g): ~33/63/48 (white); ~29/96/73 (yellow)
DPPH• (mmol TE/g): ~11/10/8.5 (white); ~9/15/8.5 (yellow) (determined from the figures)		[69]
D. opposita: purified yellow pigmentMeOH-Amberlite XAD-7-Sep-Pak C18•OH scavenging (IC50 mg/mL): 0.098 ± 0.032 (AA, 1.21 ± 0.0)[70]
D. hamiltonii: herbMeOH-E Fe3+ RP (mg AAE/g): 3.30 at 0.5 g/mL[29]
D. opposita: herbMeOH-EFe3+ RP (mg AAE/g): 4.71 at 0.5 g/mL[29]
D. opposita: herbal medicine productEtOH (70%)-E
5 g/50 mL		DPPH• (%, 0.5 mL): 43.2 ± 2.35; ABTS•+ (%, 20 μL): 40.01 ± 3.0; SOD (%, 0.2 mL): 39.97 ± 8.87[71]
D. hemsleyi: rhizomeCold/warm/hot H2O extracted polysaccharidesDPPH• (IC50, mg/mL): 4.56 ± 0.15/6.95 ± 0.13/8.85 ± 0.16
Fe3+ RP (mg AAE/g): 42.98 ± 0.79/31.78 ± 0.35/25.64 ± 0.24
FRAP (mg AAE/g): 13.88 ± 0.54/8.91 ± 0.18/5.70 ± 0.05		[72]
D. nipponica: rhizomeMeOH-E DPPH• (µg/mL): 371.64 ± 12.30[45]
D. nipponica: rhizomeH2O-soluble polysaccharide•OH scavenging (%): 3.35–43.73 at 0.25–4 mg
•O2− (%): 27.5–35.52 at 0.25 mg and 2 mg 		[73,74]
D. nipponica: leavesEtOH (70%)-E(mg TE/g edw) DPPH•: 415 ± 9; ABTS•+: 659 ± 4 [68]
D. opposita: rhizome,
flesh/peel		Hot H2O-EDPPH• (IC50, μg/mL): 1008.62 ± 5.96/374.85 ± 6.78
•OH (IC50, μg/mL): 1267.04 ± 5.13/744.25 ± 3.46		[75]
EtOH (80%)-EDPPH• (IC50, μg/mL): 897.14 ± 4.73/415.74 ± 3.79
•OH (IC50, μg/mL): 1155.00 ± 9.64/845.21 ± 14.66
D pentaphylla: leavesEA (80%)/MeOHDPPH• (IC50, μg/mL): 135.12 ± 0.95/85.61 ± 0.64
•NO (IC50, µg/mL): 195.78 ± 0.29/68.13 ± 0.26 		[76]
D pentaphylla: tubersMeOH/Ac crude extractsDPPH• (EC50, μg/mL): 82.07 ± 0.08/89.41 ± 0.39
Metal chelating (EC50, μg/mL): 81.47 ± 0.36/86.52 ± 0.55		[77]
D. japonica: tubersEtOH (70%)DPPH•: at 0.1–10 mg/mL from 18.01 to 89.64%[78]
D. villosa: leavesH2O/MeOH-EDPPH• (IC50 μg edw/mL): 21.36/40.24[79]
D. rotundata: flour/pasteH2O 1:10 (w/v)DPPH• (IC50, mg/mL): 19.26 ± 2.4/19.56 ± 1.5
ABTS•+ (mmol TE/100 g): 0.79 ± 0.00/1.31 ± 0.08
Fe3+ RP (mmol AAE/100 g): 0.93 ± 0.58/1.45 ± 0.47
•OH (%): 56.71 ± 1.51/63.72 ± 2.31
Fe2+ chelating (%): 8.33 ± 2.78/11.11 ± 5.56		[47]
D. opposita: rhizomes18 compounds from MeOH-EDPPH• (EC50, µg/mL): 12.3 ± 0.2->100 (AA = 19.2)
•O2− (EC50, µg/mL): 38.8 ± 1.3->100 (AA = 16.7)		[80]
D. opposita: tuber mucilageH2O-E(%) DPPH• 38.2 ± 3.14/•O2−, 84.1 ± 6.57/•OH, 79.4 ± 6.42;
1 mM AA: 94.7 ± 3.21/89.9 ± 5.31/16.1 ± 0.64		[81]
D. schimperianaMeOH (60%)ABTS•+ (MTE/100 gMF): 0.153 (yellow); 0.218 (with red dot); 0.151 (red fleshed)[82]
D. bulbiferaEtOH (70%)DPPH• (%): 64.81 ± 2.80; ABTS (%): 72.44 ± 5.28[83]
D. polystachya DPPH• (%): 77.09 ± 0.00; ABTS (%): 99.89 ± 1.60
D. batatas DPPH• (%): 75.74 ± 0.94; ABTS (%): 83.66 ± 9.03
D. quinqueloba DPPH• (%): 84.46 ± 0.41; ABTS (%): 95.56 ± 0.96
D. batatas: thermally treated yamMeOH (70%)/EtOH (70%)/CF: MeOH (2:1)DPPH• (IC50, mg/mL): 0.56/0.52/0.43
ABTS•+ (IC50, mg/mL): 1.28/1.05/0.60		[84]
D. opposita: tuber mucilageAutolysis/hydrolysis (pepsin/trypsin/papain)•O2- (all in % at 100 mg/mL): 60.2 ± 4.01/82.2 ± 5.95 (p)/56.0 ± 4.36 (t)/98.5 ± 3.54 (p)/52.6 ± 4.18
•OH: 90.4 ± 5.25/91.2 ± 5.86 (p)/91.2 ± 5.50 (t)/91.6 ± 5.92 (p)/67.6 ± 4.34 DPPH•: 75.2 ± 4.77/61.7 ± 4.03 (p)/87.1 ± 5.04 (t)/70.2 ± 4.89 (p)/87.6 ± 2.75 (all in mmol α-Toc)		[85]
D. batatas: yamMeOH-E and fractions/HX/EA/BuOH/H2ODPPH• (IC50, µg/mL): 602.2 ± 71.92/510.6 ± 25.02/80.5 ± 12.37/263.0 ± 56.47/>1000[86]
Arial bulbilsMeOH-E and fractions/HX/EA/BuOH/H2ODPPH• (IC50, µg/mL): 376.3 ± 32.18/180.9 ± 24.77/38.1 ± 5.82/161.4 ± 32.14/>1000
AA: 15.2 ± 2.96; BHT 18.6 ± 4.05; VitE 35.6 ± 5.12		[87]
D. alata: yamEtOH (50%)/hot H2O/H2O DPPH• (mg α-Toc eq/g): 4.14 ± 0.01/3.71 ± 0.03/3.37 ± 0.04 (peel); 0.73 ± 0.07/0.72 ± 0.03/0.22 ± 0.03 (flesh)
Fe3+ RP (mg GAE/g): 41.3 ± 0.8/28.7 ± 0.4/30.6 ± 0.4 (peel); 0.58 ± 0.00/0.83 ± 0.02/0.86 ± 0.01 (flesh)		[88]
D. japonica: bulbilMeOH (80%)-E: CF/EA/BuOH/H2O Fr/AADPPH• (µg): 200.8 ± 7.9: 38.8 ± 3.6/14.8 ± 0.6/75.4 ± 1.6/>1000/3.3
ABTS•+ (mg): 2.3 ± 0.2: 0.5 ± 0.02/0.13 ± 0.02/0.93 ± 0.1/9.4 ± 0.5/1.2 µg		[89]
D. batatas: bulbil DPPH• (µg): 84.0 ± 2.6: 23.6 ± 2.0/9.2 ± 0.2/27.6 ± 0.8/>1000/3.3
ABTS•+ (mg): 0.9 ± 0.04: 0.3 ± 0.04/0.09 ± 0.04/0.42 ± 0.04/7.6 ± 0.4/1.2 µg
D. trifida: dried tubers ABTS•+ (µmol TE/100 g): 131.14 ± 5.49 to 174.52 ± 0.78 (depending on drying method)[90]
D. trifida: tubers (IC50, mg/mL) DPPH•: 7.44; ABTS•+: 0.54; •O2−: 13.67[91]
Abbreviations: AA—ascorbic acid; AAE—ascorbic acid equivalent; Ac—acetone; ABTS•+—2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) scavenging capacity; AcA—acetic acid; AAE—ascorbic acid equivalent; BHT—butyl hydroxy toluene; BuOH—n-butanol; CF—chloroform; ChelA—chelating activity; CUPRAC—cupric reducing antioxidant capacity; DCM—dichloromethane; de—dried extract; DE—diethyl ether; DPPH•—(2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) scavenging capacity; dw—dry weight; E—extract; EA—ethyl acetate; edw—extract dry weight; eq—equivalent; EtOH—ethanol; Fe2+,Fe3+—ferric ion; fr—fraction; FRAP—ferric reducing antioxidant power (determined using ferric-tripyridyltriazine complex); Fe3+ RP—ferric reducing power (determined using potassium ferricyanide complex); GA—gallic acid; GAE—gallic acid equivalents; H2O—water; HX—hexane; IC50—effective concentration reducing 50% of the radicals present in the reaction; LPI—lipid peroxidation inhibition; MeOH—methanol; ND—not detected; NO2—nitrogen dioxide radical; •NO—nitric oxide scavenging activity; •O2−—superoxide anion scavenging activity; O2−—superoxide radical-scavenging activity; •OH—hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity; ORAC—oxygen radical absorbance capacity; pdw—plant dry weight; PE—petrol ether; Q—quercetin; SOD—superoxide dismutase; TE—Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid) equivalent; α-Toc—α-tocopherol; 2,7-dOH-4,6-dMetOP—2,7-dihydroxy-4,6-dimethoxy phenanthrene; 6,7-dOH-2,4-dMetOP—6,7-dihydroxy-2,4-dimethoxy phenanthrene; 6-OH-2,4,7-tMetOP—6-hydroxy-2,4,7-trimethoxyphenanthrene (See Supplementary Materials abbreviations).
Table
Table 3. Total content of various groups of compounds in Dioscorea spp.
Table 3. Total content of various groups of compounds in Dioscorea spp.
Species: Plant Part SolventsCharacteriticsRef.
D. alata: tubersMeOHTPC: male 12.21 ± 0.82; female: 17.53 ± 1.30
TFC: male 14.80 ± 0.69; female 9.17 ± 0.3		[21]
EtOH (20%) fr.TS (%): male: 0.48 ± 0.06; female: 0.93 ± 0.17
D. alata: soaked flour of tubersH2O + AcA (5%): in H2O/NaHSO3 0.2%)/AA (0.1%)TPC: 11.6 ± 0.31/12.7 ± 0.67/11.5 ± 0.13
TFC: 7.0 ± 0.14/7.4 ± 0.21/7.3 ± 0.23
TAC (mg CGE/100 g): 46.7 ± 3.35/74.3 ± 3.83/50.0 ± 2.26		[49]
D. alata: tubersH2OTPC: 1.00–3.85; TFC: 0.60–1.60; TAC: 0.10–0.90[93]
D. alata: yamEtOH (50%)/hot H2O/H2O TPC (peel): 11.14 ± 0.30/6.09 ± 0.08/6.60 ± 0.13
TPC (flesh): 0.25 ± 0.01/0.40 ± 0.02/0.24 ± 0.00		[88]
D. alata: tubersEtOH (80%) TPC (mg GAE/g edw): 63.85 ± 1.83; TFC (mg RE/g edw): 8.21 ± 0.02; TFL (mg QE/g edw): 17.23 ± 0.19[94]
D. alata: purple yamEffect of processingTAC (mg/100 g): 38.12 (raw), 36.73 (blanched), 32.63 (washed), 29.29 (dried), 27.27 (flour)[48]
D. glabra: tubers TPC (mg/100 g): 335.64 ± 3.92; TFC: 65.73; C: 23.49 ± 0.0413; H2O-soluble B: 0.036 to 4.159[46]
D. alata: tubersMeOH (50%) + 0.1% HClTAC: 3.32 mg/g[95]
D. alata: tubersMeOH (80%) TPC (mg GAE/g edw): flesh 48.3 ± 4.1; peel 194.8 ± 14.6[52]
EA frTPC (mg GAE/g edw): flesh 479.5 ± 33.1; peel 695.1 ± 35.1
D. alata: tubersMeOH TPC (mg GAE/g edw): 222.99; TFC (mg QE/g edw): 98.95[50]
D. batatas: tubers;
thermally treated yam		EtOH (70%)/MeOH (70%)/
CHCl3:MeOH (2:1) 		TPC (mg CE/g edw): 43.38 ± 0.66/37.62 ± 0.88/67.17 ± 0.12[55]
D. batatas: thermally treated TS (mg/g dw): 42.52 ± 1.88
TT (mg CE/g dw): 14.95 ± 0.98		[56]
D. batatas: raw yamBuOH/EATPC (mg CE/g edw): 78.68 ± 0.58/111.88 ± 0.66[57]
D. batatas: tubers thermally treatedBuOH/EATPC (mg GE/g): 53.83 ± 1.00/51.63 ± 2.63[59]
D. batatas: aerial bulbilsMeOH-E: and fr HX/EA/BuOH/H2OTPC (mg/g): 60.60: 12.63/27.48/17.18/4.03
TFC (mg/g): 16.4: 32.1/70.1/34.2/1.38		[87]
D. batatas: thermally treated yamMeOH (70%)/EtOH (70%)/CF:MeOH (2:1)TPC: 63.63 ± 0.33/69.47 ± 1.00/97.49 ± 0.66[84]
D. batatas: rhizomeMeOH: Jang-Ma/Dang-MaTPC (mg/g): 34.86 ± 0.15/45.84 ± 0.34; TFC (mg/g): 6.67 ± 0.22/7.33 ± 0.14; Total sugar (mg/g): 281.96 ± 0.08/140.86 ± 0.21[45]
D. alata: rhizomeMeOH: Dungkun-Daema/Jasak-MaTPC (mg/g): 87.05 ± 0.0.11/27.98 ± 0.25; TFC (mg/g): 12.67 ± 0.34/7.75 ± 0.23; Total sugar (mg/g): 184.98 ± 0.14/107.61 ± 0.32[45]
D. batatas: yamMeOH-E: and fr HX/EA/BuOH/H2OTPC (mg/g): 5.05: 2.61/48.31/8.49/3.81
TFC (mg/g): 4.85: 4.85/42.55/1.71/0.66 		[86]
D. hispida:MeOH-E: fr PE/CTC/DCM/H2OTPC: 160.65 ± 0.18: 280.09 ± 0.54/287.50 ± 0.71/68.98 ± 1.43/22.99 ± 0.54[23]
D. bulbifera: stem tuberMeOH (80%)TPC (mg GAE/mg edw): 0.243 ± 0.052; nontannins, 0.632 ± 0.048; tannins, 0.259 ± 0.034.
TFL (mg QE/mg edw) 1.399 ± 0.075; TFC, 0.060 ± 0.025		[61]
D. bulbifera: rhizomeMeOH: Buchae-Ma TPC (mg/g): 51.11 ± 0.16; TFC (mg/g): 10.33 ± 0.09; total sugar (mg/g): 179.79 ± 0.14[45]
D. nipponica: rhizomeMeOH: Dungkun-MaTPC (mg/g): 52.08 ± 0.24; TFC (mg/g): 13.99 ± 0.11; total sugar (mg/g): 147.67 ± 0.09[45]
D. birmanica: rhizomeEtOH (95%). TPC (mg GAE/g e): 170.85 ± 3.02
TFC (mg CE/g e): 132.55 ± 3.59		[16]
D. birmanica: rhizomeEtOH (95%).TPC (mg GAE/g e): 170.85 ± 3.02
TFC (mg CE/g e): 132.55 ± 3.59		[16]
D. bulbifera: tubersMeOH TPC (mg/100 g FW): 67.17 ± 0.12[96]
D. bulbifera: tubersSoaked in 0–10% oligosaccharide solutionTPC (mg GAE/g): 1.37 ± 0.3–1.41 ± 0.1
TFC (mg RE/g): 0.97 ± 0.1–1.04 ± 0.1		[66]
D. bulbifera: bulbPE/EA/MeOH (sequentially)/EtOH (70%) TPC (mg/mL): 49.22 ± 0.80/98.00 ± 1.17/145.4 ± 3.29/85.89 ± 1.16
TFC (mg/mL): 4.95 ± 0.1/27.86 ± 0.18/12.76 ± 0.48/12.10 ± 0.05		[64]
D. hamiltonii: tuberMeOH TPC: male 41.40 ± 2.94; female: 50.70 ± 2.49 [21]
TFC: male: 25.67 ± 0.93; female: 36.67 ± 0.99
EtOH (20%) and its fractionTS (%): male 0.95 ± 0.14; female 1.16 ± 0.18
D. hamiltonii (syn D. persimilis): herbsMeOHTPC (µg/mL GAE): 158.21; TFC (μg/mL CE): 72.3 [29]
Vanillin-CH3COOH and HClO4 mixture 1:5 (v/v)TS (dioscin equivalents): 257.8 μg/mL
D. hispidaMeOH-E: fr PE/CTC/DCM/H2OTPC: 160.65 ± 0.18: 280.09 ± 0.54/287.50 ± 0.71/68.98 ± 1.43/22.99 ± 0.54[23]
D. oppositifolia: tubersMeOHTPC: male: 11.03 ± 0.60; female: 13.65 ± 0.36
TFC: male: 7.21 ± 0.99; female: 15.03 ± 1.08		[21]
EtOH (20%) and its fractionTS (%): male: 0.45 ± 0.09; female: 0.81 ± 0.15
D. opposita: tuber mucilageAutolysis/hydrolysisTPC (mg/g powder): 6.4 ± 0.08/15.3 ± 1.60 (pepsin)/11.2 ± 1.34 (trypsin)/7.4 ± 0.09 (papain)[85]
D. pubera: tubersMeOHTPC (mg GAE/gm dw): male: 31.76 ± 0.21; female: 21.83 ± 2.5 [21]
EtOH (20%) and its fractionTFC (mg CAE/gm): male: 19.68 ± 1; female: 22.17 ± 0.2
TS (%): male: 0.88 ± 0.23; female: 0.92 ± 0.17
D. oppositifolia (syn D. opposita): herbMeOH-ETPC (µg/mL GAE): 297.03; TFC (μg/mL CE) 49.6[29]
Vanillin-CH3COOH and HClO4 mixture 1:5 (v/v)TS (μg/mL dioscin equivalents): 475.5
D. opposita: rhizomeHot H2O TPC: flesh 1.77 ± 0.67; peel:10.97 ± 0.21; TFC (mg rutin/g eq): flesh: 1.03 ± 0.15; peel 1.77 ± 0.07; TC (mg/g): flesh: 324.90 ± 0.82; peel:123.50 ± 0.80[75]
EtOH (80%) Flesh: TPC 7.77 ± 0.10; TFC (mg RE/g extract): 1.20 ± 0.10; TC (mg/g extract) 23.63 ± 0.45
Peel: TPC: 15.40 ± 0.10; TFC (mg RE/g extract): 2.62 ± 0.15; TC (mg/g extract) 17.60 ± 0.20
D. pentaphylla: leavesMeOH TPC (mgGAE/g): 213.89 ± 3.93; TFC (mg QE/g): 41.5 ± 2.12[76]
EATPC (mgGAE/g): 76.39 ± 3.54; TFC (mg QE/g): 147.5 ± 3.54
D. schimperiana: tubers flourEtOH (20%) and its fraction; pasta with 60% yam flourTPC: traditional process, 2.86 ± 0.02; modified process, 5.04 ± 0.03[11]
D. schimperiana:MeOH (60%) TPC (mg/100 g): 10 (yellow); 8 (with red dot); 8 (red fleshed)[82]
D. trifida: tubersCommonly used methodsTPC (mg GAE/100 g): 187.09–513.67 ± 9.49
Total carbohydrate (%): 81.75 ± 0.24
Total starch (%): 74.11 ± 0.55		[90]
EtOH (95%):HCl 85:15 (v/v)TAC (mg C-3-Glc/100 g): 159.11–281.10 ± 0.01
D. trifida: tubersDry powders TPC (mg GAE/100 g dw): 166.10 ± 1.52; TFC (mg QE/100 g dw) 27.63 ± 2.69; TT (mg GAL/100 g dw)
9.62 ± 0.084; TAC (mg C-3-Glc/100 g dw): 21.59 ± 1.47		[91]
D. wallichii: dried powderMeOH (male/female)TPC: 10.73 ± 0.25/9.73 ± 0.28
TFC (mg CE/gm): 20.6 ± 0.6/26.00 ± 2.14		[21]
D. quinquelobaH2O/MeOH/EtOH/
EA		TPC (mg/g): 10.16/10.48/14.67/9.91
TFC (mg/g): 7.58/9.91/10.58/16.02 		[97]
D. rotundata: flour/pasteH2O 1:10 (w/v)TPC (mg GAE/g): 1.56 ± 0.04/1.34 ± 0.02
TFC (mg QE/g): 0.16 ± 0.01/0.08 ± 0.01		[47]
D. alata: flour/paste TPC (mg GAE/g): 1.38 ± 0.03/1.12 ± 0.02
TFC (mg QE/g): 0.18 ± 0.01/0.10 ± 0.02
D. japonica: tubersEtOH (70%)TPC: 35.15 mg GAE/100 g edw[78]
Dioscorea spp.: tubers, 5 cultivarsInoculated with 6 spp. of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi;
flesh/peel		TPC (mg/kg): Tainung 1: 21.3-44.5/39.0-52.7; Tainung 2: 19.8–38.3/43.9–54.5; Ercih: 11.1–16.9/40.4–50.4[98]
TFC (mg/kg): Tainung 1: 4.1–8.6/9.9–15.1; Tainung 2: 4.4–6.9/9.6-10.4; Ercih: 4.5–5.6/7.8–10.9; Zigyuxieshu: 4.9–6.5/9.3–11.8
Tainung 5: 4.4–5.7/8.3–10.9
TAC (flesh/peel, mg/kg): Tainung 1, 2, Ercih: nd; Zigyuxieshu: 0.83–1.08/1.93–2.54; Tainung 5: 0.33–0.76/1.52–2.42
D. bulbiferaEtOH (70%)TPC: 2.23 ± 0.03; TFC (mg RE/g): 1.99 ± 0.17[83]
D. polystachya TPC: 3.65 ± 0.11; TFC (mg RE/g): 2.62 ± 0.20
D. batatas TPC: 2.25 ± 0.19; TFC (mg RE/g): 1.57 ± 0.06
D. quinqueloba TPC: 9.50 ± 0.38; TFC (mg RE/g): 1.30 ± 0.16
D. batatas: rawBuOH/EATPC (mg CAE/g-E): 78.68 ± 0.58/111.88 ± 0.66[57]
D. alata: flour of 5 cultivarsSmall/medium/large particle size fractions Phenols (%): 0.27–1.39/0.52–2.82/0.48–2.20
TAC (mg/100 g): nd-14.20/nd-15.27/2.25–13.07
Carotenoids (µg/100 g): nd-132.12/nd-129.8/nd-123.1		[99]
D. alata: tubers TPC (mg GAE/100 g): 157.7 ± 7.5; TFC (mg CE/100 g): 190.4 ± 10.9[100]
D. japonica: tubers TPC (mg GAE/100 g): 206.4 ± 12.8; TFC (mg CE/100 g): 178.2 ± 8.3[100]
D. bulbifera: tuber TPC (mg GAE/100 g FW): 166 ± 10[96]
D.versicolor: tuber TPC (mg GAE/100 g FW): 41 ± 5
D. deltoidea: tuber TPC (mg GAE/100 g FW): 15 ± 2
D. triphylla: tuber TPC (mg GAE/100 g FW): 13 ± 1
D. japonica: bulbilMeOH (80%): fr CF/EA/BuOH/H2OTPC: 2.2 ± 0.1: 11.5 ± 0.4/33.9 ± 1.8/3.9 ± 0.1/2.4 ± 0.1[89]
D. batatas: bulbil TPC: 3.9 ± 0.2: 19.6 ± 0.8/39.1 ± 2.2/7.4 ± 0.4/5.8 ± 0.2
D. hirtiflora: tubersSuccessively DCM/EA/MeOHTPC (mg GAE/g): 0.25 ± 0.01/8.9 ± 0.69/10.1 ± 0.35
TFC (mg QE/g): ND/24.2 ± 0.43/28.1 ± 0.35		[67]
D. dumetorum TPC (mg GAE/g): 1.75 ± 0.02/0.81 ± 0.003/1.04 ± 0.02
TFC (mg QE/g): 8.58 ± 0.14/12.4 ± 0.43/9.6 ± 0.21
D. bulbifera: mauve TPC (mg GAE/g): 1.91 ± 0.02/14.0 ± 0.41/5.99 ± 0.09
TFC (mg QE/g): 26.1 ± 0.29/74.4 ± 0.41/54.5 ± 0.73
D. bulbifera: yellow TPC (mg GAE/g): 1.0 ± 0.10/12.6 ± 0.34/0.99 ± 0.01
TFC (mg QE/g): 7.87 ± 1.10/52.0 ± 0.14/29.3 ± 0.02
Abbreviations: AA—ascorbic acid; AcA—acetic acid; BuOH—n-butanol; C—vitamin C; CE—catechin equivalents; CF—chloroform; CGE—cyanidin glucoside equivalents; C-3-Glc—cianidina-3-galactosıd; CTC—carbon tetrachloride; B—vitamin B; DCM—dichloromethane; dw—dry weight; E—extract; EA—ethyl acetate; edw—extract dry weight; eq—equivalent; EtOH—ethanol; fr—fraction; FW—fresh weight; GAE—gallic acid equivalents; HX—hexane; MeOH—methanol; NaHSO3—Na-bisulfide; pdw—plant dry weight; PE—petrol ether; pfw—plant fresh weight; Q—quercetin; QE—quercetin equivalents; RE—rutin equivalents; TAC—total anthocyanin content; TFC—total flavonoid content; TFL—total flavonol content; TPC—total phenol content; TS—total saponins; TT—total tanin; α-Toc—α-tocopherol.
Table
Table 4. Bioactivities of Dioscorea species reported by the in vitro cell studies and in vivo animal studies.
Table 4. Bioactivities of Dioscorea species reported by the in vitro cell studies and in vivo animal studies.
Species PreparationStudy DesignResultsRef.
D. alata: tuberH2O-E in plantain and bitter leaf meal Rat model, 2.0 g dough meal food, consumed within 25 min. Blood glucose and GI ↓: the potential to be used as functional foods to alleviate postprandial hyperglycemia [10]
D. alata: tuberMeOH-E Antimicrobial activityEffective against the Gram-positive bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae and fungi Candida albicans[21]
D. alata: freeze-dried powderContaining antho-cyaninsTNBS-inducted colitis mice; DACNs at 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg for 3 days, intra-rectallyThe levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IFN-γ ↓. May be applied as a potential food supplement in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) therapy[95]
D. alata: tuberMeOH-EAntibacterial activity using disc diffusion assayEffective against the bacteria Staphylococcus epidermidis and Gram-negative bacteria: Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri[50]
D. alata: tuberMeOH (70%)-E Mice spleen lymphocytes cellsAnti-inflammatory effect by inhibition of the NO and TNF-α expression. [133]
D. alata: tuberH2O (WSP)Alloxan-induced hyperglycemic rats; 400 mg/kg bw/day, 4 weeks, orallyFasting blood glucose gradually decreased[134]
D. alata tuberEtOH and H2O Doxorubicin-induced cardiac damage mice; daily dose 30 mg/mL for 4 weeks; orallyRegulate NF-kB expression at the transcriptional level; cardiac levels of TBARS, ROS, inflammatory factors, the expression of NF-kB, blood pressure ↑; SOD, GPx activity ↑. [135]
D. alata: purple yamEtOH (80%)-E; EA fr of peel and fleshMethylglyoxal-induced HepG2 cellsExtracts strengthened antioxidant defense system [52]
Antiglycation activity in vitroCould inhibit the formation of dicarbonyl compounds in a dose-dependent manner.
D. batatas: peelEtOH (95%), DDP LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cell model2, 7-dihydroxy-4, 6-dimethoxy phenanthrene suppressed LPS-induced expression of cytosolic iNOS and COX-2. Could exert anti-inflammatory activity by suppressing NF-κB signaling pathway.[136]
D. batatas: rhizomeH2OSTZ-induced diabetic mice; at 500 or 1000 mg/kg 1/day for 4 weeks Glucose and leptin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ↓.
Expression of antioxidant enzymes, and mitochondrial-induced biogenetic factors in the liver, pancreas, and muscle tissue ↑.		[137]
Allantoin at 20 or 50 mg/kg/day for 4 weeks; orally
D. batatas: flesh and peelEtOH (60% and 95% w/w); H2OEtOH-induced gastric ulcer in mice; a single dose 100 or 200 mg/kg bw, orallyExtracts dissolved in: 5% Tween-80, 10% polyethylene glycol, 10% DMSO, and 10% EtOH saline: inflammatory factors, NO and IL-6, in the serum; COX-2 expression in the gastric tissue ↓[138]
D. batatas: barkEtOH (BDB)Anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cellsNO production (dose-dependent); iNOS protein induction; regulates inflammation by inhibiting the COX-2 pathway[139]
D. batatas: yamH2O-E; powderSTZ-induced diabetic rats; at 2500 or 1000 mg/kg daily doses for 1-month, orallyFasting blood glucose and HbAlc ↓; the serum antioxidant activities of tGSH, GSH and SOD ↑; lipid malondialdehyde (MDA), oxidized glutathione (GSSG) ↓[140]
D. birmanica: rhizomeEtOH-E SNP-induced oxidative stress in liver BNL CL.2 cellsElevated cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. Can ameliorate oxidative stress[16]
D. bulbifera: powder of bulbilsEtOH and H2O-E Cell culture model; 1–100 μg/mL ELow cytotoxic effect on the cells [62]
CF, EA, H2O frLPS-induced RAW macrophage 264.7 cellsMild anti-inflammatory activity
D. bulbifera: leavesMeOH-EMCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells Cytotoxic effect in cell lines; prompts apoptosis at various stages and a significant decrease in viable cells[63]
D. cayennensis: tubersProtein conc. 64%Antibacterial activityNo inhibition of Salmonella sp. and Lysteria monocytogenes; effective against E. coli [141]
D. hamiltonii: tuberMeOH-E Antimicrobial activity Effective against Streptococcus pneumoniae[21]
D. hamiltonii (D. persimilis): herbMeOH-EXylene-induced ear edema damage mice; 2 and 6 g/kg, 5 days, orallyDecreased the level the inflammatory cytokines and reduced oxidative stress[29]
D. hemsleyi: poly-saccharidesWarm and hot H2O Anti-hyperglycemic activityEffectively inhibits α-amylase, α-glucosidase [72]
D. japonicaEtOH-E λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema mice; 0.5 and 1.0 g/kg, orallyMDA, NO, TNF-α ↓ after 5th hour; 1.0 g/kg decreased the developments of carr-induced paw edema after 5th hour [142]
Acute toxicity, at 10 g/kg No toxicity observed
LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cellsNo effects on viability; suppressed LPS-induced production of NO, TNF-α, expression of iNOS and COX-2
D. japonica: yam tubersEtOH and H2O-E Doxorubicin-induced cardiac damage in mice; a daily dose of 30 mg/mL (w/v) for 4 weeks; orallyMight regulate NF-kB expression at the transcriptional level; cardiac levels of TBARS, ROS, inflammatory factors, expression of NF-kB; blood pressure ↓; SOD, GPX activity ↑[135]
Monascus-fermented D. (red mold D. (RMD))
root		EtOH (95% w/w) dissolved in mineral oilDMBA-induced hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis; RMD extracts (50, 100, 200 mg/kg bw, paint for 14 weeks on days alternate to DMBA painting) Anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activity. Inhibit the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-R, IL-1β, IL-6, and IFN-γ, which in turn, leads to oxidative stress. [143]
D. nipponicaEtOH (70%)-E Anti-osteosarcoma activity Induced apoptosis in human osteosarcoma cells line U2OS[144]
D. nipponica: rhizomeSaponins MSU-inducted gouty arthritis mice; TS at 100, 300, 900 mg/kg every 24 h for 7 days, orally TS (dioscin, protodioscin, pseudo protodioscin) might restore production of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, pro-interleukins IL-1β and IL-8 to the normal conditions, regulating antioxidant capacities and NALP3 inflammasome. [145]
D. nipponica: rhizomeEtOH (80%)-E and diosgenin in 1% carboxyl methyl-cellulose ISO-induced myocardial ischemia model in rats; diosgenin at 20, 40, 80 mg/kg for 3 days.
500 mg/kg for 3 days, orally, after ISO injection 		Diosgenin protects the myocardium against ischemic insult through increasing enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant levels; decreasing oxidative stress damage;
SOD, CAT, GPx activity ↑; lipid peroxidation ↓
Confirms hypothesis that intestinal bacteria produce diosgenin from D. nipponica extract.		[24]
Dry precipate of saponins ISO-induced myocardial ischemia model in rats; 150 and 300 mg/kg for 3 days, orally, both before and after ISO injectionSOD, CAT, GPx, total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) activity ↑; can protect the myocardium against ischemic insult [146]
D. nipponica: rhizome Dry precipitate of saponinsRat model; single dose of 160 mg/kg intragastricallyDiosgenin was one of the main metabolites found in plasma and feces. The extract can play an essential role in cardioprotective efficacy.[146]
D. nipponicaCrude drug with saponins Potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemic mice; 60, 300, 600 mg/kg every 24 h for 6 days, before induction Total saponins (dioscin, protodioscin, pseudo protodioscin) from RDN had uricosuric effect and could enhance urate excretion and reduce the serum urate levels [14]
D. nipponica:
rhizome 		MeOH-EAntibacterial activityEffective against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella typhimurium[45]
D. opposita: yam Fresh-cut,
MeOH → yellow powder		•OH-induced DNA damage Can protect against DNA damage (IC50 0.098 ± 0.032 mg/mL); provides a theoretical basis for the application of YP in food and drug industry.[70]
D. oppositifoliaMeOH-EXylene-induced ear edema damage mice; 2 and 6 g/kg, for 5 days; orallyThe inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-6; oxidative stress ↓[29]
D. oppositifolia: tubersMeOH-E Antimicrobial activityEffective against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella dysenteriae, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis[21]
D. opposita:
Chinese yam 		Cold-soaking extract (CYCSE) HCT-induced rat; CYCSE 60 mg/kg and 80 mg/kg for 10 days
H2O2-induced Leydig cells (TM3) 		Can stimulate the NO/cGMP pathway and protect against induced erectile dysfunction; may protect testis morphology, increase TM3 cell proliferation and stimulate testosterone secretion. Suppressed TGF-β1 in injured cells.
Can protect against damage from the oxidative stress response.		[147]
D. panthaica:
rhizome 		Precipate of saponins DP-EISO-induced myocardial ischemia model in rats; 150 and 300 mg/kg, 3 days; orallySOD, CAT GPx, total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) activity ↑; can protect the myocardium against ischemic insult [146]
D. purpurea: tuberEtOH and H2O Doxorubicin-induced cardiac damage in mice; a daily dose of 30 mg/mL (w/v) for 4 weeks; orallySOD and GPx activity ↑; might regulate NF-kB expression at the transcriptional level; blood pressure, the cardiac levels of TBARS, ROS, and inflammatory factors, the expression of NF kappa B↓. [135]
D. pentaphylla: tuber MeOHAntibacterial activity using disc diffusion assayEffective against Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus pyogenes, Vibrio cholerae, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella typhi. [77]
D. pubera BlumeMeOHAntimicrobial activity Effective against Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis [21]
D. wallichiiMeOHAntimicrobial activityEffective against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella dysenteriae and fungus Candida tropicalis [21]
D. zingiberensis: rhizome Total steroid saponins (TSS)Adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rat; 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg 1/day, every 3 days, respectively, from day 0 to day 28, orally The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α ↓; suppressed production of oxidant stress makers: NO, MDA; could protect an injured ankle joint from further deterioration. [19]
LPS-induced RAW
264.7 macrophage cells		TSS suppresses NF-κB activation by inhibiting the phosphorylation of p65 and IκBα
D. villosa: leaf MeOHMouse fibroblast L929 cell lineNo cytotoxic effect. Scratch assay: expression of Collagen-1; induction of migration of fibroblasts to the wound site ↑.[104]
Abbreviations: AA—ascorbic acid; AIA—adjuvant-induced arthritis; BDB—bark of D. batatas DECNE; cGMP—cyclic 3′,5′-monophosphate; COX-2—cyclooxygenase-2; CYCSE—Chinese yam cold-soaking extract; DACNs—anthocyanins; DP-E—D. panthaica extract; DMBA—7,12-dimethylbenz-[a]anthracene; DMSO—Dimethyl sulfoxide; E—extract; EA—ethyl acetate; EtOH—ethanol; GI—glycemic index; GSH—reduced glutathione; H2O2—hydrogen peroxide; HbAlc—glycated hemoglobin; HCT—hydrocortisone; IBD—inflammatory bowel disease; IFN-γ—interferon-gamma; (IL)-8—interleukin; iNOS—inducible nitric oxide synthase; ISO— isoprenaline; LPS—lipopolysaccharide; MDA—malondialdehyde; MeOH—methanol; NF kappa B—nuclear factor kappa B; NF-κB—nuclear factor-κB; NO—nitric oxide; Nrf2—nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2; PGE2—prostaglandin E2; RDN—rhizoma D. nipponica; RMD—red mold dioscorea; ROS—reactive oxygen species; SNP—sodium nitroprusside; SOD—superoxide dismutase; STZ—streptozotocin; TBARS—thiobarbituric acid-reacting substances; TGF-β1—transforming growth factor-β1; tGSH—total glutathione; TNBS—trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid; TNF-a—tumor necrosis factor-a; TS—total saponins; TSS—total steroid saponins; YP—yellow powder.
Table
Table 5. Phytochemicals in Dioscorea spp.
Table 5. Phytochemicals in Dioscorea spp.
Species: Plant Part SolventsCompoundsRef.
D. alata: tubers MeOH Vitamins (mg/g): male: C, 13.49 ± 3.64; B1, 1.14 ± 0.16; B2, 1.75 ± 0.26; female: C, 18.26 ± 1.37; B1, 1.26 ± 0.11; B2, 1.87 ± 0.2[21]
D. alata: tubers EtOH (50%) with 0.1% HClAnthocyanins: alatanin C (cyanidin 3-(6-sinapoyl gentiobioside); cyanidin-3-diglucoside; cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside; alatanins B, C; alatanin E, D, F isomers[93]
D. alata (purple yam): dried tubers EtOH (80%) Phenolic acids (mg/100 g mdw): galic 0.482 ± 0.057; 4-hydroxy benzoic 0.192 ± 0.0024; syringic 0.899 ± 0.0022; sinapic 0.202 ± 0.0501; chlorogenic 0.451 ± 0.0038; ferulic 0.089 ± 0.0005. Flavonoids (mg/100 g mdw): quercetin 0.687 ± 0.0030, apigenin 0.210 ± 0.0041; kaempferol 9.219 ± 0.0043[94]
D. glabra: tubers mg/100 gm: C, 23.49 ± 0.0413; H2O-soluble B, 0.036 to 4.159 [46]
D. alata (purple yam):
freeze-dried tubers		MeOH (50%) with 0.1% HClAnthocyanins (% peak area): cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside (31.22); cyanidin-3-diglucoside-5-celery glycosides (28.77); delphinidin-3-glucose-5-rutinoside (16.36); delphinidin-3-glucoside (12.18), delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside (11.31) [95]
D. alata: freeze-dried tubersMeOH (70%)Phenolic acids (mg/g dw): galic 29.34; 4-hydroxy benzoic 6.48; syringic 2.94; p-coumaric 2.53; myricetin 42.39[133]
D. alata: tubersMeOHMyricetin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, epicatechin, vanillin, p-coumaric acid, trans-cinnamic acid and kaempferol.[50]
D. batatas: freeze-dried flesh and peel of tubersEtOH (95%) Phenanthrenes (mg/100 g dw): peel: 2,7-dihydroxy-4,6-dimethoxy 47.35 ± 0.25; 6,7-dihydroxy-2,4-dimethoxy 29.29 ± 0.08; 6-hydroxy-2,4,7-trimethoxy (batatasin I) 35.85 ± 0.12 [54]
D. batatas: yam Thermally treated mealsVitamins (mg/100 g): E, 8.3; C, 3.5; B1, 2.1, B2, 0.03[84]
D. bulbifera: flesh and peel of bulbils/tubers MeOHPhenolic acids (µg/g dw). Flesh: gallic 1.69 ± 0.13, isovanillic 1.02 ± 0.06, protocatechuic 0.15 ± 0.01. Peel: gallic 2.30 ± 0.20, isovanillic 0.18 ± 0.02, protocatechuic 0.10 ± 0.02
Flavonoids (μg/g dw). Flesh: catechin: 46.1 ± 0.75, quercetin 0.08 ± 0.01. Peel: catechin: 8.50 ± 1.01, quercetin 0.27 ± 0.05
Ascorbic acid (µg/g dw). Flesh: 26.4 ± 0.51. Peel: 25.03 ± 3.82		[107]
EAPhenolic acids (µg/g dw). Flesh: gallic 0.32 ± 0.14, isovanillic 1.71 ± 0.05, protocatechuic 0.13 ± 0.007. Peel: gallic 0.27 ± 0.03, isovanillic 0.22 ± 0.09, protocatechuic 0.20 ± 0.07
Flavonoids (μg/g dw). Flesh: catechin 108.3 ± 0.69, quercetin 0.99 ± 0.05. Peel: catechin 23.1 ± 0.22, quercetin 1.36 ± 0.16
Ascorbic acid (µg/g dw). Flesh: 4.52 ± 1.18. Peel: 2.8 ± 0.09
D. japonica: leaves DE extract fraction Total triterpenoids (including esters) (mg/g d.w.): Tokyo 734.71; Kanagawa 716.55[169]
D. caucasica: leaves DETotal of triterpenoids (including esters) (mg/g dw): 1492.56 [169]
D. hispida: leaves DE extract fractionTotal of triterpenoids (including esters) (mg/g dw): 704.11[169]
D. quinquelobata: leaves DE extract fraction Total of triterpenoids (including esters) (mg/g dw): 467.29[169]
D. purpurea: leaves DE extract fractionTotal of triterpenoids (including esters) (mg/g dw): 628.54[169]
D. nipponica: leaves DE extract fractionTotal of triterpenoids (including esters) (mg/g dw): 837.83[169]
D. hamiltonii: dried powder of tubersMeOH Vitamins (mg/g): male: ascorbic acid 10.31 ± 2.75, thiamine 1.15 ± 0.09, riboflavin 0.82 ± 0.07; female: ascorbic acid 12.7 ± 3.64, thiamine 1.03 ± 0.16, riboflavin 0.98 ± 0.12[21]
D. hamiltonii (syn D. persimilis): dry herb powderMeOH; HPLCPhenolic acids (µg/g d.w): gallic 6.24 ± 0.07; protocatechuic 0.65 ± 0.02; chlorogenic 0.93 ± 0.03; syringic 26.26 ± 0.42; p-coumaric 0.96 ± 0.05
Flavonoids (µg/g dw): catechin 17.69 ± 0.03; rutin 7.07 ± 0.22; quercetol 6.8 ± 0.17; kaempferol 5.92 ± 0.13.
Saponin content (µg/g dw): protogracillin 60.21 ± 1.04; dioscin 18.21 ± 0.54; diosgenin 25.00 ± 0.08; trillin 107.08 ± 1.12 		[29]
D. hirtiflora: flesh/peelMeOHPhenolic acids (µg/g dw): gallic 0.34 ± 0.00/0.73 ± 0.35, isovanillic 0.28 ± 0.04/0.30 ± 0.06, protocatechuic 0.13 ± 0.02/0.13 ± 0.03.
Flavonoids (μg/g dw): catechin 6.91 ± 0.21/4.00 ± 0.23, quercetin 0.47 ± 0.14/0.28 ± 0.009
Ascorbic acid (µg/g d.w): 5.88 ± 0.57/12.0 ± 0.61		[107]
EAPhenolic acids (µg/g dw): gallic 0.19 ± 0.03/0.24 ± 0.04, isovanillic 0.88 ± 0.03/0.93 ± 0.09, protocatechuic 0.42 ± 0.02/0.20 ± 0.02.
Flavonoids (μg/g d.w): catechin 23.7 ± 0.42/5.19 ± 0.50, quercetin 0.42 ± 0.09/1.57 ± 0.26.
Ascorbic acid (µg/g d.w): 4.26 ± 0.39/2.72 ± 0.22
D. nipponica: rhizomesNADES containing 30% H2O Steroidal saponins (%): protodioscin 79.90, protogracillin 68.12, pseudoprotodioscin 67.27, pseudoprotogracillin 74.8 [170]
D. nipponica: freeze-dried rhizomesEtOH (70%)Saponins (mg/g): protodioscin 159.983 ± 0.064; protogracillin 4.250 ± 0.024; pseudoprotodioscin 13.821 ± 0.037; dioscin 22.999 ± 0.121[144]
D. opposita: rhizome Hot H2O Phenolic acids (μg/g): gallic 3.56 ± 0.13; chlorogenic 6.77 ± 0.06; vanillic 8.49 ± 0.36; syringic 2.95 ± 0.14; p-coumaric 16.90 ± 0.17.
Flavonoids (μg/g): epicatechin 7.37 ± 0.24; phlorizin 18.90 ± 0.48		[75]
EtOH (80%)Phenolic acids (μg/g): gallic 3.10 ± 0.4; chlorogenic 7.92 ± 0.42; vanillic 12.59 ± 0.51; syringic 6.78 ± 0.46; p-coumaric 16.39 ± 0.37
Flavonoids (μg/g): rutin 9.48 ± 0.40; epicatechin 28.39 ± 0.57; phlorizin 20.29 ± 0.34
D. oppositifolia.: stems, leaves AC (50%) → DCM Norsesquiterpenoids: dioscopposin A, dioscopposin B[151]
D. oppositifolia (syn D. opposita) (Chinese yam): herbMeOHPhenolic acids (μg/g dw): gallic 3.67 ± 0.10; protocatechuic 0.69 ± 0.02; chlorogenic 1.20 ± 0.04; vanillic 2.08 ± 0.05; syringic 37.35 ± 0.49; p-coumaric 1.65 ± 0.04.
Flavonoids (μg/g dw): rutin 11.98 ± 0.16; quercetol 27.76 ± 0.12; kaempferol 18.65 ± 0.08; catechin 4.45 ± 0.07.
Saponins (μg/g dw): protogracillin 154.45 ± 2.56; dioscin 23.64 ± 0.27; diosgenin 26.02 ± 0.05; trillin 77.61 ± 0.10		[29]
D. quinquelobata:
rhizomes		EtOH (70%)Steroidal saponins (mg/g): protodioscin 3.496 ± 0.018, protogracillin 5.945 ± 0.020, pseudoprotodioscin ND.,
dioscin 10.002 ± 0.051, gracillin 9.011 ± 0.098		[144]
D. pentaphylla: leaves MeOHGallic acid, rutin, quercetin[76]
D. polystachya; tubers MeOH (70%)Dehydroepiandrosterone, allantoin, 5-hydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone, arnebinone, dioscin, protodioscin[171]
D. pubera: tubers MeOHVitamin content (mg/g): male: ascorbic acid 14.29 ± 2.38, thiamine 0.85 ± 0.07, riboflavin 1.02 ± 0.08; female: ascorbic acid 15.88 ± 1.37, thiamine 0.99 ± 0.11, riboflavin 0.94 ± 0.14[21]
D. septemloba: rhizomesEtOH (75%)Phenanthropyran: dioscorone B, phenanthrene: 2,2′,6,6′-tetramethoxy-4,4′7,7′-tetrahydroxy-1,1′-biphenanthrenes[172]
D. septemloba: rhizomesEtOH (70%)Steroidal saponins (mg/g): protodioscin 8.959 ± 0.014, protogracillin 9.902 ± 0.061, pseudoprotodioscin ND, dioscin 9.822 ± 0.014, gracillin 7.123 ± 0.031[144]
D. wallichii: dried powderMeOHVitamins (mg/g): male: ascorbic acid 9.52 ± 2.38, thiamine 1.25 ± 0.13, riboflavin 1.18 ± 0.1; female: ascorbic acid 12.7 ± 1.4, thiamine 1.11 ± 0.12, riboflavin 1.13 ± 0.24 [21]
D. bulbifera: rhizomesPurified from EtOH (80%) E with EA, Sephadex LH-20, and ODSC22 ω-hydroxy fatty acid, 3-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoic acid, various phenanthrene derivatives and flavonoids[173]
D. trifida: yam tubers Pelargonidin, cyanidin, peonidin glycosides and other derivatives[113]
D. opposita Aromatic benzyl compounds, dihydrostilbenes, phenanthrenes: diarylheptanoids, apigenin[80]
D. opposita: aerial partsEtOH6,7-dihydroxy-2-methoxy-1,4-phenanthrenedione; chrysoeriol 4′-O-â-D-glucopyranoside, chrysoeriol 7-O-â-D-glucopyranoside, alternanthin, daucosterol [174]
D. communis Herorensol, 2,3,4-trimethoxy-7,8-methylenedioxyphenanthrene, 2,4-dimethoxy-7,8-methylendioxy-3-phenanthrenol, chrysotoxene, 2,4,8-trimethoxy-3,7-phenanthrenediol, orchinol, and lusianthridin 7[31]
D. schimperiana: yellow-fleshed/yellow with red dot/red-fleshed MeOH (60%)µg/100 g: α-Toc 538.66/275.11/554.86; lutein: 18.06/16.35/18.22; zeaxanthin: 11.62/6.70/11.68; β-kryptoxanthin: 2.37/6.12/2.39; β-carotene: 212.23/197.04/212.98; β-carotene: 560.94/462.30/562.91; lycopene: 0.83/0.84/0.84;
Pro-vit A carotenoids: 787.15/672.16/789.95 		[82]
D. batatas: thermally treated (mg/100 g dw) Chlorophyll a/b: 0.43 ± 0.01/0.75 ± 0.02; lycopene 0.30 ± 0.00; phytic acid 1.04 ± 0.42[56]
Abbreviations: AC—acetone; C—vitamin C; DCM—dichloromethane; DE—diethyl ether; dw—dry weight; EA—ethyl acetate; EtOH—ethanol; FW—fresh weight; HCl—hydrochloric acid; MeOH—methanol; NADES—natural deep eutectic solvent; ND—not detected; α-Toc—α-tocopherol.
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Adomėnienė, A.; Venskutonis, P.R. Dioscorea spp.: Comprehensive Review of Antioxidant Properties and Their Relation to Phytochemicals and Health Benefits. Molecules 2022, 27, 2530. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27082530

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Adomėnienė A, Venskutonis PR. Dioscorea spp.: Comprehensive Review of Antioxidant Properties and Their Relation to Phytochemicals and Health Benefits. Molecules. 2022; 27(8):2530. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27082530

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Adomėnienė, Aušra, and Petras Rimantas Venskutonis. 2022. "Dioscorea spp.: Comprehensive Review of Antioxidant Properties and Their Relation to Phytochemicals and Health Benefits" Molecules 27, no. 8: 2530. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27082530

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