Author Contributions
Conceptualization, X.J.; methodology, Z.P.; software, Z.Z. and Y.L.; validation, Z.P., Z.Z., W.Z. and L.H.; formal analysis, Z.P. and W.Z.; investigation, Y.L.; resources, Z.P.; data curation, W.Z. and L.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.W.; writing—review and editing, Z.Z. and W.Z.; visualization, Y.L. and L.H.; supervision, Z.P.; project administration, Z.P.; funding acquisition, Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
Test instruments and equipment.
Figure 1.
Test instruments and equipment.
Figure 3.
Interface area division.
Figure 3.
Interface area division.
Figure 4.
Different fonts.
Figure 4.
Different fonts.
Figure 5.
Expectations—different scenes.
Figure 5.
Expectations—different scenes.
Figure 6.
Experimental flowchart.
Figure 6.
Experimental flowchart.
Figure 7.
Experience comparison.
Figure 7.
Experience comparison.
Figure 8.
Experience comparison—eye movement.
Figure 8.
Experience comparison—eye movement.
Figure 9.
Information anomaly probability.
Figure 9.
Information anomaly probability.
Figure 10.
Information anomaly probability—eye movement.
Figure 10.
Information anomaly probability—eye movement.
Figure 11.
Heat map—different information anomaly probability.
Figure 11.
Heat map—different information anomaly probability.
Figure 12.
Information salience—questionnaire score and performance.
Figure 12.
Information salience—questionnaire score and performance.
Figure 13.
Information salience—eye movement.
Figure 13.
Information salience—eye movement.
Figure 14.
Expectations questionnaire—score and performance.
Figure 14.
Expectations questionnaire—score and performance.
Figure 15.
Expectations—eye movement.
Figure 15.
Expectations—eye movement.
Figure 16.
Prompt channel—questionnaire score and performance.
Figure 16.
Prompt channel—questionnaire score and performance.
Figure 17.
Cue channel—eye movement.
Figure 17.
Cue channel—eye movement.
Figure 18.
Cue channel—interest area gaze proportion.
Figure 18.
Cue channel—interest area gaze proportion.
Figure 19.
Heat map—interest area gaze proportion.
Figure 19.
Heat map—interest area gaze proportion.
Figure 20.
Cue channel electrodermal signal—visual cue (left), audiovisual cue (middle), and auditory cue (right).
Figure 20.
Cue channel electrodermal signal—visual cue (left), audiovisual cue (middle), and auditory cue (right).
Figure 21.
Automation levels—eye movement.
Figure 21.
Automation levels—eye movement.
Figure 22.
Automation levels—electrodermal signal for (a) low automation levels and (b) high automation levels.
Figure 22.
Automation levels—electrodermal signal for (a) low automation levels and (b) high automation levels.
Table 1.
Experience comparison—questionnaire scores and performance.
Table 1.
Experience comparison—questionnaire scores and performance.
| SAGAT Score | SART Score | Operational Correction | Hit Rate | Time of Annihilation |
---|
unskilled | 71.5 | 17.43 | 92% | 83.33% | 18.67 s |
skilled | 79.25 | 23.3 | 97% | 94.67% | 16.68 s |
Table 2.
Empirical comparison—eye tracking data.
Table 2.
Empirical comparison—eye tracking data.
| Blink Frequency (Hz) | Eyelid Opening (mm) | Pupil Diameter (mm) |
---|
unskilled | 60.214 ± 0.015 | 9.189 ± 0.855 | 4.631 ± 0.539 |
skilled | 60.219 ± 0.033 | 8.538 ± 1.626 | 4.516 ± 0.301 |
Table 3.
Empirical control—significance test.
Table 3.
Empirical control—significance test.
| Analysis of Variance | T-Test |
---|
F | Significance | T | Sig. (Two-Tailed) |
---|
Operation accuracy | 0.400 | 0.561 | −1.936 | 0.125 |
Hit rate | 2.298 | 0.204 | −1.176 | 0.305 |
Time of annihilation | 0.309 | 0.608 | 1.135 | 0.320 |
Blink frequency | 2.802 | 0.169 | −0.139 | 0.896 |
Eyelid opening | 1.356 | 0.309 | 0.354 | 0.741 |
Pupil diameter | 2.086 | 0.222 | −0.581 | 0.593 |
Table 4.
Information anomaly probability—questionnaire scores and performance.
Table 4.
Information anomaly probability—questionnaire scores and performance.
Information Anomaly Probability | SAGAT Score | SART Score | Operation Accuracy | Hit Rate | Time of Annihilation |
---|
once every minute | 70.5 | 19.9 | 92.33% | 78.33% | 19.46 s |
once every 5 min | 81.25 | 17.8 | 97% | 88.33% | 34.27 s |
no abnormality | 76 | 18.55 | 98.33% | 96% | 16.55 s |
Table 5.
Information anomaly probability—eye movement data.
Table 5.
Information anomaly probability—eye movement data.
Information Anomaly Probability | Blink Frequency (Hz) | Eyelid Opening (mm) | Pupil Diameter (mm) |
---|
once every minute | 60.213 ± 0.016 | 9.491 ± 1.130 | 4.805 ± 0.460 |
once every 5 min | 60.232 ± 0.017 | 7.032 ± 1.210 | 4.687 ± 0.332 |
no abnormality | 60.219 ± 0.031 | 9.272 ± 0.789 | 4.611 ± 0.476 |
Table 6.
Information anomaly probability—interest area gaze proportion.
Table 6.
Information anomaly probability—interest area gaze proportion.
Once Every Minute | Once Every 5 Min |
---|
Area of Interest | Proportion of Gaze (%) | Area of Interest | Proportion of Gaze (%) |
---|
Map area | 3.1 | Map area | 1.9 |
Aiming area | 81.7 | Aiming area | 84.3 |
Instrument panel | 11.7 | Instrument panel | 9.4 |
Directional area | 3.5 | Directional area | 3.4 |
Table 7.
Information anomaly probability—significance test.
Table 7.
Information anomaly probability—significance test.
| Analysis of Variance | T-Test |
---|
F | Significance | T | Sig. (Two-Tailed) |
---|
Operation accuracy | 0.492 | 0.522 | −1.673 | 0.170 |
Hit rate | 0.752 | 0.775 | −1.551 | 0.196 |
Time of annihilation | 10.068 | 0.034 | −1.549 | 0.196 |
Blink frequency | 0.002 | 0.968 | −0.834 | 0.451 |
Eyelid opening | 0.094 | 0.775 | 1.485 | 0.212 |
Pupil diameter | 0.613 | 0.477 | 0.208 | 0.846 |
Table 8.
Information salience—questionnaire score and performance.
Table 8.
Information salience—questionnaire score and performance.
Abnormal Information Display | SAGAT Score | SART Score | Operation Accuracy | Hit Rate | Time of Annihilation |
---|
Font turns red | 73.17 | 19.225 | 94.25% | 81.75% | 18.51 |
Font turns large | 55 | 12.1 | 84% | 88% | 44.4 |
Table 9.
Information salience—eye tracking data.
Table 9.
Information salience—eye tracking data.
Information Anomaly Probability | Blink Frequency (Hz) | Eyelid Opening (mm) | Pupil Diameter (mm) |
---|
Font turns red | 60.204 | 9.109 | 4.991 |
Font turns large | 60.285 | 9.429 | 5.110 |
Table 10.
Expectations questionnaire—score and performance.
Table 10.
Expectations questionnaire—score and performance.
Expectations | SAGAT Score | SART Score | Operation Accuracy | Hit Rate | Time of Annihilation |
---|
Few obstacles | 79.92 | 15.5 | 98.5% | 99% | 47.44 s |
Dense obstacles | 71.58 | 19.9 | 88.83% | 90% | 37.87 s |
Table 11.
Expectations—eye movement.
Table 11.
Expectations—eye movement.
Expectations | Blink Frequency (Hz) | Eyelid Opening (mm) | Pupil Diameter (mm) |
---|
Few obstacles | 60.349 | 11.079 | 4.397 |
Dense obstacles | 60.324 | 10.794 | 4.357 |
Table 12.
Prompt channel—questionnaire score and performance.
Table 12.
Prompt channel—questionnaire score and performance.
| SAGAT Score | SART Score | Operation Accuracy | Hit Rate | Time of Annihilation |
---|
Visual Cues | 73.25 | 19.225 | 94% | 85.5% | 18.51 s |
Audiovisual Cues | 75 | 18.7 | 98.75% | 96% | 23.12 s |
Auditory Cues | 81.67 | 21.4 | 92.67% | 89.67% | 58.18 s |
Table 13.
Prompt channel—eye movement.
Table 13.
Prompt channel—eye movement.
| Blink Frequency (Hz) | Eyelid Opening (mm) | Pupil Diameter (mm) |
---|
Visual Cues | 60.203 ± 0.011 | 9.426 ± 0.755 | 4.792 ± 0.352 |
Audiovisual Cues | 60.251 ± 0.021 | 7.682 ± 0.784 | 4.757 ± 0.330 |
Auditory Cues | 60.233 ± 0.038 | 9.763 ± 0.288 | 4.802 ± 0.190 |
Table 14.
Prompt channel—interest area gaze proportion.
Table 14.
Prompt channel—interest area gaze proportion.
Visual Cues | Audiovisual Cues | Auditory Cues |
---|
Area of Interest | Proportion of Gaze (%) | Area of Interest | Proportion of Gaze (%) | Area of Interest | Proportion of Gaze (%) |
---|
Map area | 12.8 | Map area | 4.7 | Map area | 1.1 |
Aiming area | 86.6 | Aiming area | 93.9 | Aiming area | 94.2 |
Instrument panel | 0.6 | Instrument panel | 1.4 | Instrument panel | 4.7 |
Table 15.
Automation levels—questionnaire scores and performance.
Table 15.
Automation levels—questionnaire scores and performance.
| SAGAT Score | SART Score | Operational Correctness | Hit Rate | Time of Annihilation |
---|
low automation levels | 73.25 | 19.225 | 94.4% | 85.4% | 18.51 s |
high automation levels | 83.33 | 19.2 | 87.33% | 87.33% | 31.82 s |
Table 16.
Automation levels—eye movement data.
Table 16.
Automation levels—eye movement data.
| Blink Frequency (Hz) | Eyelid Opening (mm) | Pupil Diameter (mm) |
---|
low automation levels | 60.205 ± 0.014 | 8.883 ± 0.678 | 4.861 ± 0.445 |
high automation levels | 60.239 ± 0.045 | 7.518 ± 0.613 | 4.716 ± 0.386 |