Virtual Water Flow Pattern in the Yellow River Basin, China: An Analysis Based on a Multiregional Input–Output Model
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology and Materials
2.1. Study Region
2.2. Multi-Regional Input–Output Virtual Water Accounting Framework of the Yellow River Basin
2.2.1. Single-Region Input–Output Model
2.2.2. Modeling of Yellow River Basin Inputs and Outputs on a Multi-Regional Scale
2.2.3. Estimation of Virtual Water Trade Flow
2.2.4. Water Stress Index and Pull Coefficient
2.3. Data Source and Processing
3. Results and Analysis
3.1. Virtual Water Usage of Different Sectors in the Yellow River Basin
3.1.1. Analysis of Sectoral Water Usage Coefficient
3.1.2. Volume of Trade in the Sector of Virtual Water
3.1.3. Pull Coefficient Analysis
3.2. Regional Virtual Flow Pattern in the Yellow River Basin
3.2.1. Trade Volume of Virtual Water
3.2.2. Analysis of Virtual Water and Water-Resource Carrying Capacity
3.3. Virtual Flow Pattern in the Yellow River Basin
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
5.1. Conclusions
- (1)
- The whole Yellow River region is in a net input state of virtual water. Among them, the upstream areas—Gansu, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia Province—are in the net output provinces (regions), while the other six provinces belong to the virtual water net input regions. Gansu’s virtual water input and output state is the most seriously incompatible with the local water-resource carrying capacity among all the provinces discussed.
- (2)
- Agriculture is the largest import and export sector of all regions. In addition to agriculture, the upstream region is sufficient in water resources. The main export sector of virtual water is the water supply industry, and those for the middle- and downstream regions are the services and transportation and manufacturing industries, respectively. Obvious differences exist in the pull coefficients of the same sectors in various provinces (regions). On the whole, the average pull coefficients of mining, manufacturing, and construction are large. The water management of these sectors is conducive to rapid water-resource regulation and rational utilization in this region.
- (3)
- The virtual flow of the Yellow River Basin has obvious geographical distribution characteristics. The trade volume of virtual water in the downstream region is large. The volume of virtual water trade within the upper reaches is low, and the trade links with the middle and lower reaches are insufficient. Henan and Shandong Provinces are the main flow directions in the Yellow River Basin, and Gansu and Inner Mongolia are the dominant virtual water sources.
5.2. Suggestions
- (1)
- China should vigorously implement the ecological compensation policy of water usage. Although the region is in the virtual water net input area as a whole, the WSI of Gansu and Ningxia is high, which is seriously inconsistent with the virtual water net output state. The utilization of water resources should be distributed comprehensively throughout the country. By reducing the virtual water flow in Gansu and Ningxia, the local ecological development and water resource allocation balance can be protected. China should also appropriately increase the output of virtual water in Sichuan and grasp the advantages of local green water resources. Meanwhile, we recommend increasing the virtual water output from other surplus provinces to Henan and Shandong Provinces, reducing the pressures of water outflow, and ensuring local water safety and ecological security.
- (2)
- All industry sectors should adhere to the principle of “determining production by water”. The whole Yellow River Basin should develop water-saving agricultural techniques, change the traditional mode of agricultural production, strictly control the total water, and improve water-usage efficiency. The upper reaches of the Yellow River Basin should enforce the technological innovation investment and water-use efficiency, and the regional water-shortage situation should be alleviated by importing water-intensive products to water-rich areas; The middle reaches should speed up the transformation to a resource-based economy, develop water-saving industries, and vigorously develop the service and transportation industry; The lower reaches should speed up the development of high value-added manufacturing industries and strengthen economic ties inside and outside the region.
- (3)
- China should fully strengthen the exchanges and cooperation between the lower, middle, and upper reaches, and actively explore the institutional mechanism of water ecological protection. China should establish an internal, cooperative development mechanism in this region with the goals of common economic development, water conservation, and ecological protection. Through trade-oriented interprovincial cooperation, China should reduce the intermediate links of ineffective water use, make the virtual water flow to the most needy regions and sectors, improve water sewage efficiency, and drive economic development. China should also comprehensively improve the interprovincial virtual water-trade flow, give full play to the economic ties between the lower, middle, and upper reaches, and jointly realize the sustainable development of the economy, as well as the ecological environment.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Province (Region) | Total Water Resources/100 Million m3 | Total Water Consumption/100 Million m3 | GDP/100 Million Yuan | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Upper reaches | Qinghai | 919.30 | 26.20 | 2965.95 |
Gansu | 325.90 | 110.00 | 8718.30 | |
Ningxia | 12.60 | 69.90 | 3748.48 | |
Sichuan | 2748.90 | 252.40 | 46,615.82 | |
Inner Mongolia | 447.90 | 190.90 | 17,212.53 | |
Middle reaches | Shanxi | 97.30 | 76.00 | 17,026.68 |
Shaanxi | 495.30 | 92.60 | 25,793.17 | |
Lower reaches | Shandong | 195.20 | 225.30 | 71,067.53 |
Henan | 168.60 | 237.80 | 54,259.20 | |
The Yellow River Basin | 5411.00 | 1281.10 | 247,407.66 | |
Whole country | 29,041.00 | 6021.20 | 986,515.20 | |
Percentage of Yellow River Basin in China | 18.63% | 21.28% | 25.08% | |
Percentage of upper reaches in the Yellow River Basin | 82.32% | 50.69% | 32.04% | |
Percentage of middle reaches in the Yellow River Basin | 10.95% | 13.16% | 17.31% | |
Percentage of lower reaches in the Yellow River Basin | 6.72% | 36.15% | 50.66% |
Item | Intermediate Use | Final Demand | Export | Total Output | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Qinghai | … | Henan | Other Regions | Qinghai … Henan | Other Regions | |||||
Sector1 … Sector42 | … | Sector1 … Sector42 | Sector1 … Sector42 | |||||||
Intermediate input | Qinghai | Sector1 | … | |||||||
… | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | ||
Sector42 | … | |||||||||
… | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | |
Henan | Sector1 | … | ||||||||
… | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | ||
Sector42 | … |
Combined 7 Sectors | Department Abbreviation |
---|---|
Agriculture | AG |
Mining | MI |
Water supply | WA |
Electricity and gas supply | EL |
Manufacturing | MA |
Construction | CO |
Services and transport | ST |
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Liu, X.; **ong, R.; Guo, P.; Nie, L.; Shi, Q.; Li, W.; Cui, J. Virtual Water Flow Pattern in the Yellow River Basin, China: An Analysis Based on a Multiregional Input–Output Model. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127345
Liu X, **ong R, Guo P, Nie L, Shi Q, Li W, Cui J. Virtual Water Flow Pattern in the Yellow River Basin, China: An Analysis Based on a Multiregional Input–Output Model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(12):7345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127345
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, **uli, Rui **ong, Pibin Guo, Lei Nie, Qinqin Shi, Wentao Li, and **g Cui. 2022. "Virtual Water Flow Pattern in the Yellow River Basin, China: An Analysis Based on a Multiregional Input–Output Model" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 12: 7345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127345