Current Views about the Inflammatory Damage Triggered by Bacterial Superantigens and Experimental Attempts to Neutralize Superantigen-Mediated Toxic Effects with Natural and Biological Products
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. T Cell Receptor and T Cell Activation
3. Modalities of Superantigen Binding to TCR and Induction of the Inflammatory Pathway
4. Superantigen-Mediated Disease
5. Natural and Biological Products as an Alternative Treatment of Superantigen-Mediated Damage
5.1. Polyphenols
5.2. Beta-Glucans
5.3. Lactobacilli
5.4. Antimicrobial Peptides
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ALI | Acute lung injury |
AMPs | Antimicrobial peptides |
APCs | Antigen-presenting cells |
b-LF | Bovine lactoferrin |
CDR | Complementary determining regions |
CFs | Cell-free supernatants |
DCs | Dendritic cells |
EPs | Exopolysaccharides |
ER | Endoplasmic reticular |
ICAM-1 | Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 |
IFN | Interferon |
IL | Interleukin |
LF | Lactoferrin |
MHC | Major histocompatibility complex |
MIP-1 | Macrophage inflammatory protein-1 |
NFPs | N-formyl peptides |
NLRs | Nod-like receptors |
PAMPS | Pathogen-associated molecular patterns |
PTKs | Protein tyrosine kinases |
RES | Resveratrol |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
SEs | Staphylococcal enterotoxins |
SPEs | Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins |
Th | T helper |
TGF-beta | Transforming growth factor-beta |
TLRs | Toll-like receptors |
TNF-alpha | Tumor necrosis factor-alpha |
TREG | T regulatory |
TRM | T resident memory |
TSS | Toxic shock syndrome |
TSST-1 | Toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 |
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Santacroce, L.; Topi, S.; Charitos, I.A.; Lovero, R.; Luperto, P.; Palmirotta, R.; Jirillo, E. Current Views about the Inflammatory Damage Triggered by Bacterial Superantigens and Experimental Attempts to Neutralize Superantigen-Mediated Toxic Effects with Natural and Biological Products. Pathophysiology 2024, 31, 18-31. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathophysiology31010002
Santacroce L, Topi S, Charitos IA, Lovero R, Luperto P, Palmirotta R, Jirillo E. Current Views about the Inflammatory Damage Triggered by Bacterial Superantigens and Experimental Attempts to Neutralize Superantigen-Mediated Toxic Effects with Natural and Biological Products. Pathophysiology. 2024; 31(1):18-31. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathophysiology31010002
Chicago/Turabian StyleSantacroce, Luigi, Skender Topi, Ioannis Alexandros Charitos, Roberto Lovero, Paolo Luperto, Raffaele Palmirotta, and Emilio Jirillo. 2024. "Current Views about the Inflammatory Damage Triggered by Bacterial Superantigens and Experimental Attempts to Neutralize Superantigen-Mediated Toxic Effects with Natural and Biological Products" Pathophysiology 31, no. 1: 18-31. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathophysiology31010002