Harvesting Energy from Ocean: Technologies and Perspectives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Ocean Energy Potential
2.1. Potential of Tidal Energy
2.2. Potential of Wave Energy
2.3. Potential of Ocean Temperature Difference
2.4. Potential of Salinity Gradient
3. Energy Harvesting Technologies from Wave/Tidal
3.1. Wave Energy Extraction Devices
3.1.1. Oscillating Water Columns (OWCs)
3.1.2. Oscillating Body Converters (OBCs)
3.1.3. Overtop** Converters
3.1.4. Wave-Activated Bodies (WAB)
3.1.5. Point Absorber
3.2. Tidal Energy Extraction Devices
3.2.1. Tidal Range Technologies
3.2.2. Tidal Current Technologies
3.3. Ocean Thermal Energy Converter (OTEC)
3.3.1. Closed-Cycle OTEC
3.3.2. Open-Cycle OTEC
3.3.3. Kalina Cycle OTEC
3.3.4. Hybrid System
3.3.5. Ocean Thermoelectric Generators (OTEG)
3.4. Salinity Gradient Energy
3.4.1. Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO)
3.4.2. Reversed Electrodialysis (RED)
4. Current Updates on the Wave and Tidal Energy Projects
5. Environmental and Other Impacts
Type of Impact | Description |
---|---|
Noise pollution | This is one of the biggest problems. However, sound travels faster in a denser medium; hence, the sound inside water is faster than that in air. As a result, marine life is highly disturbed by the amount of sound produced by these devices. |
Collision | The animals in the sea are move frequently and wildly, and when there are barriers in the sea, collisions may occur. In addition, the visibility under the sea is worse than on land, and some marine animals have limited vision capability. This collision endangers marine life as well as possibly damages the devices. Therefore, design, operating conditions (e.g., speed and depth), materials, and location selection are essential in avoiding marine mammal collisions. |
Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) | These are generated by subsurface wires that transport electricity to the shore. EMF is detected by various marine creatures including bony fish, sharks/rays, and marine mammals. A few sensitive species [199] are attracted to cable EMF, which can be detected up to 295 m away. There is little indication that offshore power cables have a broader influence [200] |
Chemical effects | The expected risks connected with maritime vessel operations will be encountered during deployment, routine maintenance, and decommissioning. Spills can happen in routine operations, especially in systems that use hydraulic fluid. Continuous chemical leaching may occur if anti-fouling coatings are applied to decrease the biological fouling of devices. OTEC is involved in a one-of-a-kind circumstance that presents fresh challenges. It is possible that the working fluid in a closed system (typically ammonia, which is highly deadly to fish) could leak or spill [201]. |
Hydrodynamics | Hydrodynamic aspects include the seabed form and type, erosion and scouring produced by current device modifications, and unique sediment transport and deposition patterns. Wave and tidal stream projects will be located in areas with high ambient energy. Therefore, there are site-specific challenges that must be addressed. Osmotic and permanent OTEC plants must be carefully sited, especially near their output pipe locations [202]. |
6. Opportunities and Challenges in Develo** Ocean Energy Sources
6.1. Socio-Economic Performance
6.2. Social Influence
6.3. Design, Installation, and Operation
6.4. Grid Connection and Integration
6.5. Policy and Regulations
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Site | Type | Mean Tidal Range (m) | Basin Area (km2) | Proposed Capacity (GW) | Estimated Annual Output (TWh) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | San Jose | Barrage | 5.9 | - | 6.8 | 20 |
Australia | Secure bay 1 | Barrage | 10.9 | - | - | 2.4 |
Secure Bay 2 | Barrage | 10.9 | - | - | 2.4 | |
Canada | Cobequid | Barrage | 12.4 | 240 | 5.34 | 14 |
Cumberland | Barrage | 10.9 | 90 | 1.4 | 3.4 | |
Shepody | Barrage | 10 | 115 | 1.8 | 4.8 | |
India | Gulf of Kutch | Barrage | 5.3 | 170 | 0.9 | 1.7 |
Gulf of Cambay | Barrage | 6.8 | 1970 | 7 | 15 | |
South Korea | Garorim | Barrage | 4.7 | 100 | 0.48 | 0.53 |
Cheonsu | Barrage | 4.5 | - | - | 1.2 | |
Mexico | Rio Colorado | Barrage | 6.7 | - | - | 5.4 |
Tiburon | Barrage | - | - | - | - | |
UK | Severn | Barrage | 7.0 | 520 | 8.94 | 17 |
Mersey | Barrage | 6.5 | 61 | 0.7 | 1.5 | |
Wyre | Barrage | 6.0 | 5.8 | 0.047 | 0.09 | |
Conwy | Barrage | 5.2 | 5.5 | 0.033 | 0.06 | |
Swansea | Lagoon | - | - | 0.32 | - | |
Newport | Lagoon | - | - | 0.75 | - | |
Bridgewater | Lagoon | - | - | 2 | - | |
Cardiff | Lagoon | - | - | 1.8–2.8 | - | |
Colwyn Bay | Lagoon | - | - | 1.5 | - | |
Blackpool | Lagoon | - | - | 1.0 | - | |
U.S. | Passamquoddy | Barrage | 5.5 | - | - | - |
Knik arm | Barrage | 7.5 | - | 2.9 | 7.4 | |
Turnagain | Barrage | 7.5 | - | 6.5 | 16.6 | |
Arm | Barrage | - | - | - | - | |
Former Soviet Union | Mezen | Barrage | 9.1 | 2300 | 15 | 50.0 |
Tugur | Barrage | - | - | 10 | 27.0 | |
Penzhinskaya | Barrage | 6.0 | - | 50 | 27.0 | |
Cauba | Barrage | - | - | - | - |
Country | Location | Wave Resources (kW/m) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
South Africa | South African and southwest Africa Coast | 40–50 | [44] |
Argentina | Argentine Sea | 61.3–69 | [45] |
Australia | Southern Australian shelf | 25–30 | [46] |
Belgium | Belgium Continental Shelf | 4.64 | [47] |
Brazil | North East region | 2–14 | [48] |
Canada | North Pacific Ocean (Vancouver Island) | 25 | [49] |
North Atlantic Ocean (Sable Island) | 25 | ||
Chile | Los Lagos | 71–87 | [50] |
Magallanes | 78 | [51] | |
China | Bohai Sea | 7.73 | [52] |
Yellow Sea | 6.29 | ||
East China Sea | 6.36 | ||
South China Sea | 5.32 | ||
Denmark | North Sea | 9.8 | [53] |
France | Bay of Biscay | 24.3 | [54] |
Greece | Crete Island | 4–11 | [55] |
India | Indian Coast | 5–10 | [56] |
Ireland | West of Malin Head | 30–40 | [57] |
Donegal Bay | 20–40 | ||
Sherkin Island | 20 | ||
Italy | Mediterranean Sea | 8.91–10.29 | [58] |
Japan | Japan Sea Coast | 7.2 | [59] |
East Coast | 6.3 | ||
Entire Coast | 6.4 | ||
Malaysia | East Peninsular Malaysia | <6.5 | [60] |
West Peninsular Malaysia | 0.5–2.0 | [61] | |
Sarawak Ocean | 3.1–4.5 | [62] | |
Sabah Ocean | 6.5 | [63] | |
Norway | Norwegian Sea (Runde Island) | 40–50 | [64] |
Portugal | Portuguese nearshore | 30–40 | [65] |
Sweden | Skagerrak Strait | 2.8–5.2 | [66] |
United Kingdom | Celtic Sea | 15–32 | [67] |
United States | Hawaii | 15–25 | [68] |
California Coast | 10–32 | [69] | |
Pacific Northwest | 36 | [70] | |
Southeast Atlantic Coast | 9–15 | [71] |
Type | Project and Place | Capacity (kW) | References |
---|---|---|---|
Fixed | Mutriku, Spain | 296 | [91] |
REWEC3, Italy | 20 (potential of 2500) | [91] | |
King Island, Australia | 200 | [91] | |
Yongsoo OWC, Korea | 500 | [91] | |
Floating | MARMOK-A-5, Spain | 30 | [91] |
Ocean Energy Buoy, Ireland | 500 | [91,92] |
Type | Project and Place | Capacity (kW) | References |
---|---|---|---|
Heaving | PB3 PowerBuoy, USA | 3 | [94] |
CET06, Australia | 1000 | [95] | |
Atmocean, USA | 10 | [96] | |
Seabased, Sweden | 30 | [97] | |
Oceanus, UK | 162 | [98] | |
Corpower, Sweden | 300 | [95] | |
BOLT LifeSaver, Norway | 30 | [95] | |
Neptune 6, Canada | 20 | [95] | |
Archimedes Waveswing, UK | 16 | [91] | |
Horizontal | Wavepiston, Denmark | 100–200 | [95] |
40South Energy H24, Italy | 50 | [95] | |
Flap | WaveRoller, Finland | 350 | [99] |
CCell-Wave, UK | - | [100] | |
LAMWEC, Belgium | 200 | [95] | |
bioWAVE, Australia | 250 | [95] | |
Articulated | SeaPower Platform, Ireland | - | [101] |
SeaRay, USA | 5 | [91] | |
Blue Horizon, UK | - | [91] | |
Blue X, UK | 2–4 | [91] | |
M4 WEC, UK | - | [95] |
Technology | Case Studies | Mean Tidal Range (m) | Output (MW) | Notes, Operation Type | Turbine Used |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tidal barrage | La Rance (France) | 8.5 | 240 | Two-way generation with pum**, firstly operated in 1966, basin area of 22 km2 | Bulb |
Sihwa Lake (South Korea) | 5.6 | 254 | Flood generation, first operated in 2015, basin area of 56 km2 | Bulb | |
Kislaya Guba (Russia) | 2.3 | 1.7 | Two-way generation, firstly operated in 1968, basin area of 1.1 km2 | Savonius | |
Annapolis Royal (Canada) | 7.0 | 20 | Ebb generation, firstly operated in 1984, basin area of 15 km2 | Rim | |
Jiangxia (China) | 5.1 | 3.9 | Two-way generation, firstly operated in 1980, basin area of 1.4 km2 | Bulb | |
Severn Estuary (UK) | 7.8 | 8640 | Two-way generation, basin area of 450 km2 | Bulb | |
Incheon (South Korea) | 5.3 | 1320 | On hold, basin area of 110 km2 | - | |
Mezen (Russia) | 9.1 | 19,200 | Proposed, basin area of 2300 km2 | - | |
Penzhin (Russia) | 9.0 | 87,000 | Proposed, basin area of 20,530 km2 | - | |
Solway Firth (UK) | 5.5 | - | - | - | |
Bay of Fundy (Canada) | 11.7 | - | - | - | |
Gulf of Cambay (India) | 6.1 | - | - | - | |
Maluanwan (China) | 2.58 | 24 | Proposed | - | |
Bachimen (China) | 3.1 | 36 | Proposed | - | |
Jiantiaogang | 2.63 | 21 | Proposed | - | |
Tidal lagoon | Swansea Bay | - | 320 | Firstly operated in 2019, Two-way generation with pum**, basin area of 11.5 km2 | Bulb |
Tidal reef | No existing locations | - | - | - | - |
Tidal fence | No existing location | - | - | - | - |
Project and Place | Capacity (kW) | Ref., Notes |
---|---|---|
Kavaratti, Lakhshadweep Islands, India | 60 | [91], under development |
KRISO, Goseong, Korea | 20 | [91], operational |
KRISO, Korea | 1000 | [91], under development |
Nauru, Japan | 120 | [136], constructed in 1982 |
Okinawa, Japan | 50 | [136], constructed in 2013, a land based plant |
NELHA, Hawaii | 50 | [136], constructed in 1979 |
OTEC International LLC, Hawaii | 1000 | [136], operated between 1993–1998 |
Lockheed Martin naval facility, Hawaii | 10,000 | [136] |
Tuticorin, India | 1000 | [136], a floating closed cycle |
Southern China | 10,000 | [136] |
Martinique, Bellefontaine | 10,000 | [136], a floating type |
Power Plant | Country | Year | Installed Capacity (MW) | Annual Capacity (GWh) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Annapolis Royal Station | Canada | 1984 | 20 | 30 | [177] |
Jiangxi Tidal Station | China | 1980 | 3.2 | 4.4 | [177] |
Kislaya | Russia | 1968 | 1.7 | 1.8 | [189] |
Rance Tidal | France | 1966 | 240 | 480 | [189] |
Sihwa Lake | South Korea | 2011 | 254 | 552 | [121] |
Strangford Lough | UK | 2008 | 1.2 | - | [121] |
Uldolmok | South Korea | 2009 | 1.5 | 2.4 | [190] |
Eastern Scheldt | Netherlands | 2015 | 1.25 | - | [34] |
Plant | Country | Capacity (MW) | Type | Year | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ada Foah Wave Farm | Ghana | 0.4 | Point absorber | 2016 | [181] |
Agucadoura Wave Farm | Portugal | 2.25 | Surface-following attenuator | 2008 | [182] |
Azura | United States | 0.02 | Point absorber | 2015 | [183] |
BOLT Lifesaver | United States | 0.03 | Point absorber | 2016 | [184] |
Islay Limpet | United Kingdom | 0.5 | Oscillating water column | 2000 | [185] |
Mutriku Breakwater Wave Plant | Spain | 0.3 | Oscillating water column | 2009 | [186] |
Orkney Wave Power Station | United Kingdom | 2.4 | Oscillating wave surge converter | Proposed | [191] |
Pico Wave Power Plant | Portugal | 0.4 | Oscillating water column | 2010 | [192] |
SDE Sea Waves Power Plant | Israel | 0.04 | Oscillating wave surge converter | 2009 | [192] |
SINN Power wave energy converter | Greece | 0.02 | Point absorber | 2015 | [192] |
Sotenäs Wave Power Station | Sweden | 3 | Point absorber | 2015 | [192] |
Deployment Stage | Variable | Wave | Tidal | OTEC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Max | Min | Max | Min | Max | ||
First array/first project | Project capacity (MW) | 1 | 3 | 0.3 | 10 | 0.1 | 5 |
CAPEX (USD/kW) | 4000 | 18,100 | 5100 | 14,600 | 25,000 | 45,000 | |
OPEX (USD/kW·y) | 140 | 1500 | 160 | 1160 | 800 | 1440 | |
Second array/second project | Project capacity (MW) | 1 | 10 | 0.5 | 28 | 10 | 20 |
CAPEX (USD/kW·y) | 3600 | 15,300 | 4300 | 8700 | 15,000 | 30,000 | |
OPEX (USD/kW·y) | 100 | 500 | 150 | 530 | 480 | 950 | |
Availability (%) | 85% | 98% | 85% | 98% | 95% | 95% | |
Capacity factor (%) | 30% | 35% | 35% | 42% | 97% | 97% | |
LCOE (USD/MWh) | 210 | 670 | 210 | 470 | 350 | 650 | |
First commercial-scale project | Project capacity (MW) | 2 | 75 | 3 | 90 | 100 | 100 |
CAPEX (USD/kW) | 2700 | 9100 | 3300 | 5600 | 7000 | 13,000 | |
OPEX (USD/kW·y) | 70 | 380 | 90 | 400 | 340 | 620 | |
Availability (%) | 95% | 98% | 92% | 98% | 95% | 95% | |
Capacity factor (%) | 35% | 40% | 35% | 40% | 97% | 97% | |
LCOE (USD/MWh) | 120 | 470 | 130 | 280 | 150 | 280 |
Name | Capacity (MW) | Country | Primary Cost (B USD) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Garorim Bay Tidal Power Station | 520 | South Korea | 1 | [208] |
Incheon Tidal Power Station | 1320 | South Korea | 3.4 | [209] |
Tugurskaya Tidal Power Plant | 3640 | Russia | - | [209] |
Mezenskaya Tidal Power Plant | 24,000 | Russia | 22.76 | [209] |
Skerries Tidal Stream Array | 10.5 | UK | 0.07698 | [209] |
Tidal Lagoon Swansea Bay | 320 | UK | 1.3 | [212] |
Gulf of Kutch Project | 50 | India | 0.15 | [212] |
Alderney Tidal Plant | 300 | Alderney | - | [212] |
Policy Instrument | Country | Example Description |
---|---|---|
Targets | ||
Legislated targets, aspirational targets, and forecasts | United Kingdom | 3% of UK electricity from ocean energy by 2020 |
Ireland | 500 MW by 2020 | |
Portugal | 550 MW by 2020 | |
Government funding | ||
Research and development programs/grants | United States | U.S. DoE hydrokinetic program (capital grants for R&D and market acceleration) |
Prototype deployment and capital grants | United Kingdom | Marine Renewable Proving Fund (MRPF) |
New Zealand | Marine Energy Deployment Fund (MEDF) | |
Production incentives | ||
Feed-in-Tariffs | Portugal | Guaranteed price (in USD/kWh or equivalent) for ocean energy-generated electricity |
Ireland/Germany | ||
Renewables Obligations | United Kingdom | Tradable certificates (in USD/MWh or equivalent) for ocean energy generated electricity |
Prizes | Scotland | Saltire prize |
Infrastructure developments | ||
National marine energy centers | United States | Two centers were established (Oregon/Washington for wave/tidal and Hawaii for OTEC) |
Marine energy testing centers | Most western European and North American countries | European Marine Energy Center (EMEC). There are about 14 centers under development worldwide |
Offshore hubs | United Kingdom | Wave hub, connection infrastructure for devices |
Other regulatory incentives | ||
Standards/protocols | United Kingdom | A national standard for ocean energy (as well as participation in the development of international standards) |
Permitting regimes | United Kingdom | Crown estate competitive tender for |
Space/resource allocation regimes | United States | FERC/MMS permitting regime in U.S. outer Continental Shelf |
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Khan, M.Z.A.; Khan, H.A.; Aziz, M. Harvesting Energy from Ocean: Technologies and Perspectives. Energies 2022, 15, 3456. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093456
Khan MZA, Khan HA, Aziz M. Harvesting Energy from Ocean: Technologies and Perspectives. Energies. 2022; 15(9):3456. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093456
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhan, Muhammed Zafar Ali, Haider Ali Khan, and Muhammad Aziz. 2022. "Harvesting Energy from Ocean: Technologies and Perspectives" Energies 15, no. 9: 3456. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093456