Agricultural Wastes and Their By-Products for the Energy Market
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Production of Biofuels—Overview of Substrates from Agriculture
2.1. Production of Biogas
Type of Waste | Yield | References |
---|---|---|
Methane production | ||
Sunflower husks | 147 L CH4/kg VS | [31] |
Maize waste | 338 L CH4/kg VS | [32] |
Soybean straw | 196 L CH4/kg VS | [33] |
Wheat straw | 290 L CH4/kg VS | [32] |
Rice straw | 302 L CH4/kg VS | [32] |
Rice husks | 300 L CH4/kg VS | [34] |
Mix cereal grains | 345 L CH4/kg VS | [33] |
Residual cabbage and cauliflower (1:1, w/w) | 250 L CH4/kg VS | [35] |
Carrot leaves | 312 L CH4/kg VS | [36] |
Potato peels | 446 L CH4/kg VS | [36] |
Grape seeds | 71.4 L CH4/kg VS | [33] |
Apple pomace | 204 L CH4/kg VS | [37] |
Grape vinasse | 274 L CH4/kg VS | [33] |
Glycerine | 241 L CH4/kg VS | [31] |
Molasses | 456 L CH4/kg VS | [33] |
Palm oil cake | 402 L CH4/kg VS | [38] |
Sugarcane waste | 278 L CH4/kg VS | [32] |
Hydrogen production in photofermentation | ||
Potato starch powder | 77.78 mL/(L·h) | [39] |
Shrub landsca** waste | 73.82 ± 0.06 mL/g TS | [40] |
Corn stover | 74.58 mL/g TS | [41] |
Corncob | 84.7 mL/g TS | [42] |
Hydrogen production in dark fermentation | ||
Potato waste | 27.5 mL/g VSS | [43] |
Wheat straw | 31.67 mL/g VSS | [43] |
Cotton stalk hydrolysate | 179 mL/g VSS | [44] |
Raw cassava starch | 240 mL/g VSS | [45] |
Bioethanol production | ||
Wheat straw | 250–300 L/Mg d.m. | [46,47] |
Rice straw | 250–280 L/Mg d.m. | [48,49] |
Sugarcane straw | 250–450 L/Mg d.m. | [50,51] |
Potato waste | 21.7 g/L | [52] |
Sunflower stalk | 80–150 L/Mg d.m. | [53,54] |
Maize stover | 250–350 L/Mg d.m. | [47,55] |
Sugarcane bagasse | 0.29 ± 0.02 g ethanol/gglucose and xylose | [56] |
Biodiesel production | ||
Corn stover | 2.2 g/g | [57] |
Cassava starch | 0.187 g/g | [58] |
Rice bran oil | 94.12% | [59] |
2.2. Production of Biohydrogen
2.3. Production of Bioethanol
2.4. Production of Biodiesel
2.5. Production of Biobutanol
2.6. Production of Bio-Oil
2.7. Hybrid Technologies
2.8. Production of Bioelectricity by Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs)
2.9. Production Costs of Energy Sources
3. Production of Other Value-Added Products
3.1. Production of Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs) and Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
3.2. Production of Biochar
3.3. Production of Hydrochar
3.4. Production of Platform Chemicals
3.5. Production of Cellulose Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites
4. Pretreatment of Agricultural Waste
4.1. Recalcitrant Compounds in Biomass
4.2. Reduction in Biogas Yield
4.3. Impact of Pretreatment Methods on Recalcitrant Formation
4.4. Mitigation Strategies for Recalcitrants in AD
5. Conclusions, Challenges, and Perspectives
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Biofuel | Production Costs | References |
---|---|---|
Biogas | 0.05–0.18 USD/kWh | [129] |
Biomethane | 0.54–0.78 EUR/m3 | [133] |
Biohydrogen | 10–20 USD/GJ | [134] |
Bioethanol | 1310 USD/m3 | [126] |
Biodiesel | 760–1120 USD/m3 | [130] |
Bio-oil | 17–24 USD/GJ | [135] |
Biobutanol | 500–800 USD/m3 | [131,132] |
Pretreatment Method | Mechanism | Substrate | Effects on Digestion | Key Findings | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alkali-assisted thermal pretreatment | Utilizes sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to improve the degradation of manure fibers by breaking down recalcitrant compounds like lignin and crystalline cellulose. | Manure fibers | Increased biogas yield and enhanced volatile solids conversion. | CH4 yield improved by 127% with thermal pretreatment with 3% NaOH added. Optimal reductions in cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin were 24.8%, 29.1%, and 9.5%, respectively, during pretreatment; 76.5% of cellulose and 84.9% of hemicellulose were converted to CH4 during AD. | [224] |
Thermal hydrolysis pretreatment (THP) | THP enhances the performance of anaerobic digestion by solubilizing and hydrolyzing the organic component of municipal sludge at elevated temperatures and pressures. It involves the Maillard reaction between reducing sugar and amino groups, producing melanoidins, which are recalcitrant dissolved organic nitrogen (rDON) compounds. | Municipal sludge, which typically contains polysaccharides (20–40%) and proteins (30–50%), provides abundant reactants for the Maillard reaction under THP conditions. | Reduction of sludge viscosity, improvement of sludge digestibility and biogas production, enhancement of sludge dewaterability, pathogen sterilization, and odor reduction. Formation of substances with high color and ultraviolet (UV)-quenching ability, inhibition of side-stream nitrogen removal processes, and generation of rDON. | THP at temperatures of 160–190 °C and pressures of 480–1260 kPa leads to the production of melanoidins, a type of rDON. | [225] |
Alkali pre-treatment combined with bioaugmentation | Alkali pretreatment disrupts the lignocellulosic structure by breaking down lignin and hemicellulose, which hinders microbial access to cellulose. This increases the porosity, reduces the degree of polymerization, and enhances the surface area for microbial action. Bioaugmentation involves the addition of specific microbial strains or consortia to the digester to target and enhance the degradation of complex organic matter more efficiently. | Lignocellulosic biomass, with grass, is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. | Enhancement of the digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass, leading to increased biogas production. The enhancement in biogas yield is attributed to the more efficient breakdown of the biomass structure, allowing for improved microbial access and activity. | Increases biomethane production by 47% and reduces the retention time from 30 to 20 days, which could significantly lower energy production costs and make the process more economically viable. | [226] |
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Zielińska, M.; Bułkowska, K. Agricultural Wastes and Their By-Products for the Energy Market. Energies 2024, 17, 2099. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092099
Zielińska M, Bułkowska K. Agricultural Wastes and Their By-Products for the Energy Market. Energies. 2024; 17(9):2099. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092099
Chicago/Turabian StyleZielińska, Magdalena, and Katarzyna Bułkowska. 2024. "Agricultural Wastes and Their By-Products for the Energy Market" Energies 17, no. 9: 2099. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092099