Glacial Lakes in the Nepal Himalaya: Inventory and Decadal Dynamics (1977–2017)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data
2.3. Method
3. Results
3.1. Glacial Lakes in 2017, Nepal
3.2. Decadal Dynamics of Glacial Lakes
3.2.1. Glacial Lake Changes by Various Size Classes and Different Types
3.2.2. Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Lakes Across Different Basins and Elevation Zones
3.2.3. Emergence and Disappearance of Lakes
4. Discussion
4.1. Map** and Comparison with the Previous Studies
4.2. Evolution of the Lowest Elevation Glacial Lake
4.3. Causes of the Differential Expansion of the Glacial Lakes
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Acquired Date | Number of Scenes | Study Area | Sensor * | Repeat Cycle (Days) | Spatial Resolution (m) | Number of Bands |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1977 ± 1 | 9 | Nepal | MSS | 16 | 60 | 4 |
1987 ± 1 | 9 | Nepal | TM | 16 | 30 | 6 |
1997 ± 2 | 9 | Nepal | TM | 16 | 30 | 6 |
2007 ± 1 | 9 | Nepal | TM | 16 | 30 | 6 |
2017 ± 1 | 9 | Nepal | OLI | 16 | 30/15 ** | 9 |
River Basin | Sub-Basin | Nepal Glacial Lakes | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Number | Area (km2) | Mean Area | ||
Koshi | Indrawati | 9 | 0.1 | 0.01 |
BhoteKoshi | 15 | 0.35 | 0.02 | |
Tama Koshi | 34 | 2.91 | 0.09 | |
Likhu | 12 | 0.44 | 0.04 | |
DudhKoshi | 234 | 16.82 | 0.07 | |
Arun | 79 | 4.7 | 0.06 | |
Tamor | 254 | 8.73 | 0.03 | |
Subtotal | 637 (414) | 34.05 (28.04) | ||
Gandaki | Trishuli | 71 | 2.21 | 0.03 |
Budhi–Gandaki | 32 | 1.12 | 0.04 | |
Marsyangdi | 65 | 6.62 | 0.1 | |
Seti | 3 | 0.13 | 0.04 | |
Kali–Gandaki | 70 | 3.01 | 0.04 | |
Subtotal | 241 (205) | 13.09 (11.78) | ||
Karnali | HumlaKarnali | 237 | 12.63 | 0.05 |
MuguKarnali | 174 | 5.65 | 0.03 | |
Kawari | 21 | 0.95 | 0.05 | |
Karnali sub-part | 4 | 0.3 | 0.08 | |
Tila | 57 | 3.76 | 0.07 | |
Bheri | 129 | 9.09 | 0.07 | |
West Seti | 23 | 1.12 | 0.05 | |
Subtotal | 645 (427) | 33.50 (24.56) | ||
Mahakali | 18 (18) | 0.33 (0.33) | 0.02 | |
Grand Total | 1541 (1064) | 80.95 (64.69) | 0.05 |
Lake Type | 1977 | 1987 | 1997 | 2007 | 2017 | Overall Change (%, 1987–2017) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Glacier-fed | Supraglacial | 21 (0.88) | 98 (2.21) | 101 (2.25) | 158 (2.35) | 166 (2.33) | 69 (6) |
Proglacial | 87 (13.59) | 124 (16.77) | 170 (19.42) | 275 (24.76) | 349 (30.52) | 181 (82) | |
Unconnected | 252 (26.71) | 445 (29.37) | 476 (30.20) | 540 (30.72) | 549 (31.84) | 23 (8) | |
Nonglacier-fed | 246 (14.37) | 470 (16.01) | 481 (16.94) | 516 (16.36) | 477 (16.24) | 1 (1) | |
Total | 606 (55.53 ± 16.52) | 1137 (64.56 ± 11.64) | 1228 (68.87 ± 12.18) | 1489 (74.2 ± 14.22) | 1541 (80.95 ± 15.25) | 36 (25) | |
Total decadal change (%) | - | 87.62 (16.3) | 8 (6.68) | 21.25 (7.74) | 3.49 (9.1) |
Region | Study Period | Lake Expansion (%) | Lake Number | Lake Area (km2) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Third Pole | 1990–2010 | 23.2 | 5701 | 682 | [1] |
* Himalaya | 1990–2015 | 14.1 | 4950 | 455 | [9] |
* South-Central Himalaya | 23 | 1104 | 86.3 | ||
Hindu Kush | 1990–2009 | −50 | 102 | 0.7 | [2] |
Karakoram | −30 | 422 | 3.7 | ||
Everest | 40 | 583 | 29 | ||
Central Himalaya | 1990–2010 | 17.11 | 1314 | 197 | [36] |
Chinese Himalaya | 1970s–2000s | 29.7 | 1680 | 215 | [67] |
Nepal Himalaya | 2009/10 | - | 1466 | 65 | [20] |
Koshi basin (Nepal) | 2010 | 955 | 34.01 | [48] | |
Nepal Himalaya | 1987–2017 | 25 | 1541 | 80.95 | This study |
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Khadka, N.; Zhang, G.; Thakuri, S. Glacial Lakes in the Nepal Himalaya: Inventory and Decadal Dynamics (1977–2017). Remote Sens. 2018, 10, 1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121913
Khadka N, Zhang G, Thakuri S. Glacial Lakes in the Nepal Himalaya: Inventory and Decadal Dynamics (1977–2017). Remote Sensing. 2018; 10(12):1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121913
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhadka, Nitesh, Guoqing Zhang, and Sudeep Thakuri. 2018. "Glacial Lakes in the Nepal Himalaya: Inventory and Decadal Dynamics (1977–2017)" Remote Sensing 10, no. 12: 1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121913