Radar Observation of the Lava Tubes on the Moon and Mars
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanisms of Lava Tube Formation on the Moon and Mars
3. The Principle of GPR to Detect Lava Tubes
3.1. Orbiting Radar Sounders
3.2. In Situ Ground Penetrating Radar
4. Ground Penetrating Radar for Exploring Lava Tubes
4.1. Physical Properties of Lava Tubes
4.1.1. Morphological Properties of Lava Tubes
4.1.2. Dielectric Properties of Lava Tubes
4.2. Radar Echo Features of Lava Tubes
- Perpendicular (the radar motion trajectory is perpendicular to the axis of the lava tube);
- Center–parallel (the radar moves along the axis of the lava tube);
- Off–center parallel (the radar deviates from the axis of the lava tube but remains parallel to it);
- Diagonal (the radar moves at a certain angle to the axis of the lava tube). These scanning methods are shown in Figure 8.
4.3. Mechanisms of Radar Detection of Lava Tubes
- Two vertically aligned hyperbolic curves are formed, with a bright hyperbolic curve hanging over some more disordered and darker echoes.
- The phase difference between the radar echoes of the two curves is 180°.
- Collect radar data and subject them to preprocessing;
- Denoise the data and extract the apparent hyperbolic curve echoes from the potential cavity areas;
- Extract the polarity of the echo signal at the cavity’s upper edge and compare it with the polarity of the incident wave to make a preliminary judgment;
- Estimate the dielectric properties (dielectric constant and loss tangent) of the cavity and surrounding non–cavity areas and compare their differences;
- Make a final judgment and output the result.
4.4. TubeX Project
5. Distribution of Lava Tubes on the Moon
- Image detection involves analyzing the surface images of celestial bodies to detect possible lava tubes. This method can indirectly discover some anomalies on the surfaces of celestial bodies, such as skylights and collapsed lava tubes, but cannot directly detect the interior of lava tubes.
- Radar detection, as discussed in this paper, can detect the location of lava tubes at deeper layers compared to image detection, with the advantages of high resolution, high sensitivity, and fewer interferences from other features on extraterrestrial surfaces.
- Direct detection involves using rovers or other equipment to enter the lava tube and measure the physical quantities including temperature, gas composition, and magnetic field fluctuations to analyze the lava tube’s structure, composition, and characteristics. This method requires advanced technology and is challenging to operate, but it can reveal more detailed lava tube structures and features.
6. Distribution of Lava Tubes on Mars
7. The Potential Utilization of Lava Tubes: Indications to the Sites for Future Bases on the Moon and Mars
8. Conclusions and Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Correction Statement
References
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Radar | ALSE | LRS | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Orbiter | Apollo 17 | SELENE | ||
Launch year | 1972 | 2007 | ||
Status | HF1 | HF2 | VHF | – |
Wavelength (m) | 60 | 20 | 2 | 60 |
Center frequency (MHz) | 5.266 | 15.8 | 158 | 5 |
Detection depth (m) | 1300 | 800 | 160 | 5000 |
Vertical resolution (m) | 300 | 100 | 10 | 75 |
Power (w) | 130 | 118 | 95 | 800 |
Radar | MARSIS | SHARAD | MOSIR |
---|---|---|---|
Orbiter | Mars Express | Mars Reconnaissance | Tianwen–1 |
Launch year | 2005 | 2006 | 2020 |
Orbital altitude (km) | 250–900 | 250–300 | 265 |
Center frequency (MHz) | 1.3–5.5 | 15–25 | LF: 10–20 HF: 30–50 |
Detection depth (km) | 0.5–5 | 0.1–1 | 0.1–1 |
Vertical resolution (m) | 150 | 15 | 30(LF)/7.5(HF) |
Power (W) | 10 | 10 | ≥100 |
Mission | CE–3/4 | CE–5 | CE–7 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Launch year | 2013/2018 | 2020 | 2026 (est.) | ||
Status | LF | HF | – | LF | HF |
Center frequency (MHz) | 60 | 500 | 2000 | 60 | 800 |
Detection depth (m) | ≥100 | ≤30 | ≥2 | ≥400 | ≥40 |
Thickness resolution (m) | Meter–sized | 0.3 | Centimeter–sized | 2 | 0.15 |
Radar | RIMFAX | RoPeR | WISDOM | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rover | Perseverance | Zhurong | ExoMars | ||
Launch Year | 2020 | 2020 | 2028 (est.) | ||
Status | LF | HF | LF | HF | – |
Center frequency (MHz) | 375 | 675 | 55 | 1300 | 1750 |
Detection depth (m) | ≥10 | ≥10 | ≥3 | 3–10 | |
Thickness resolution (cm) | 10–20 | 20–40 | Meter–sized | Centimeter–sized | 3 |
Location | Coordinates | Data Source and Analysis Method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Marius | 14.2°N, 56.7°W | SELENE Image detection | Haruyama et al. [111] |
Marius | 13.00–15.00°N, 55.99–58.15°W | SELENE Radar detection | Kaku et al. [19] |
Mare Imbrium | 44.1214°N, 19.5116°W (CE–3 landing site) | Yutu rover Radar detection | Ding et al. [7] |
Marius | 13.096°N, 57.056°W | Kaguya, LRO LOLA Image detection | Sauro et al. [8] |
Gruithuisen | 34.618°N, 43.467°W | ||
Hyginus Rill Tectonic | 8.384°N, 5.630°E |
Location | Coordinates | Data Source and Analysis Method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Solis Planum | 15–35°S, 260–285°E | CTX, HiRISE Image detection | Zhao et al. [116] |
Echus Chasma | 1.0°N, 278.0°E | SHARAD Radar detection | Mansilla et al. [117] |
Arsia North | 3.062°S, 123.930°W | CTX, HiRISE Image detection | Sauro et al. [8] |
Arsia South | 14.377°S, 119.949°W | CTX stereo–pairs, HiRISE Image detection | |
Olympus | 19.456°N, 133.399°W | CTX stereo–pairs Image detection |
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Qiu, X.; Ding, C. Radar Observation of the Lava Tubes on the Moon and Mars. Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2850. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15112850
Qiu X, Ding C. Radar Observation of the Lava Tubes on the Moon and Mars. Remote Sensing. 2023; 15(11):2850. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15112850
Chicago/Turabian StyleQiu, **aohang, and Chunyu Ding. 2023. "Radar Observation of the Lava Tubes on the Moon and Mars" Remote Sensing 15, no. 11: 2850. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15112850