A New Method for Bare Permafrost Extraction on the Tibetan Plateau by Integrating Machine Learning and Multi-Source Information
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Region and Data
2.1. Study Region
2.2. Data Sources
2.2.1. Satellite Data
2.2.2. Topographic Data
2.2.3. Precipitation Data
2.2.4. Permafrost Data
2.2.5. Auxiliary Data
3. Extraction Method for Bare Permafrost
3.1. Image Preprocessing
3.2. Sample Point Generation
3.3. Feature Construction
3.3.1. Spectrum Characteristics
3.3.2. Texture Features
3.3.3. Topographic Characteristics
3.3.4. Climate Characteristics
3.4. Feature Selection
3.5. Supervision Classification
3.5.1. Classifier and Parameter Settings
3.5.2. Bare Land and Permafrost Classification
3.5.3. Classification Post-Processing
3.6. Map** Accuracy Evaluation
4. Results and Analysis
4.1. Bare Permafrost Extraction on the Tibetan Plateau
4.1.1. Feature Selection for Bare Permafrost Extraction on the Tibetan Plateau
4.1.2. Optimization of Random Forest Parameters for the Tibetan Plateau
4.2. Distribution Pattern of Permafrost on the Tibetan Plateau
4.2.1. Reliability Analysis of Permafrost Training Samples
4.2.2. Comparative Analysis of Different Permafrost Extraction Methods
4.2.3. Permafrost Distribution
4.3. Distribution Pattern of Bare Land on the Tibetan Plateau
4.3.1. Effect of Fractional Vegetation Cover on Bare Land Extraction on the Tibetan Plateau
4.3.2. Bare Land Distribution
4.4. Distribution Pattern of Bare Permafrost on the Tibetan Plateau
5. Discussion
5.1. Cross-Comparison with other Tibetan Plateau Permafrost Maps
5.2. Analysis of the Spatial Distribution of Bare Permafrost on the Tibetan Plateau
5.3. Influence of Climatic Factors on the Distribution of Bare Permafrost
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Permafrost | Bare Land | ||
---|---|---|---|
Permafrost (measured) | 244 | Bare land and vegetation | 845 |
Permafrost (generation) | 56 | Built-up area | 257 |
Non-permafrost (measured) | 116 | Water bodies | 304 |
Non-permafrost (generation) | 113 | Ice and Snow | 373 |
Category | Index Name | Index Characterization |
---|---|---|
Vegetation Index | NDVI [49] | |
DVI [50] | ||
RVI [51] | ||
EVI [52] | ||
Water Body Index | NDWI [53] | |
MNDWI [54] | ||
Snow Index | SWI [55] | |
NDSISnow [56] | ||
Bare land/building index | NDbaI [57] | |
SABI [57] | ||
NDSISoil [58] | ||
NDISI [59] | ||
BI [60] |
Category | Features | |
---|---|---|
Permafrost indicators | Spectrum characteristics | NDVI, EVI, RVI, DVI, SWI, LSWI, NDWI, NDSISnow, greenness, brightness, humidity, FVC, Sentinel-1 VV and VH |
Spatial characteristics | Elevation, slope, slope direction, longitude, latitude | |
Climate characteristics | Annual precipitation, average annual surface temperature, snow cover | |
Bare land index | Spectrum characteristics | B2~B7, NDSI, BI, NDSISoil, SABI, NDVI, NDWI, MNDWI, SWI, NDSISnow, NDbaI, greenness, brightness, humidity |
Texture characteristics | Second-order moments, contrast, correlation, variance, inverse moments, entropy | |
Spatial characteristics | Elevation, slope, slope direction |
Spectrum Characteristics | Texture Characteristics | Geographic Characteristics | Climate Characteristics | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Permafrost characteristics | Brightness, SWI, NDSISnow, wetness, NDVI, LSWI, NDWI, DVI, greenness, VH, VV | None | Elevation, slope, aspect, longitude, latitude | LST, precipitation, Snow_Cover |
Bare land characteristics | B2~B7, NDVI, MNDWI, SWI, NDWI, NDSISnow, NDSISoil, brightness, wetness | None | Elevation | None |
B10, B11, NDbaI, wetness, brightness, greenness, BI, SABI, NDISI, NDVI | Second-order moments, contrast, correlation, variance, inverse moments | Elevation, slope, aspect | None |
Multi-Year Permafrost Maps | Area (104 km2) | Source |
---|---|---|
Map of the current distribution of permafrost on the Tibetan Plateau | 111.3 | Niu, Fu-Jun, Yin, and Guo-An, 2018 [80] |
Newly mapped permafrost distribution on the Tibetan Plateau | 106 | Zhao, Lin, et al., 2017 [37] |
China’s ice and snow permafrost map at a scale of 1:4 million | 154.25 | Schiavone and Middleson, 1988 [81] |
Permafrost map of the Tibetan Plateau at a scale of 1:3 million | 122 | Cheng, G., and Li, Shude, 2011 [82] |
Multi-year permafrost stability distribution map of the Tibetan Plateau | 115.02 | Ran Youhua et al., 2021 [39] |
Probability map of multi-year permafrost at a 1 km resolution of the Tibetan Plateau | 117 | Cao, B., et al., 2019 [38] |
In this study, the permafrost range of the Tibetan Plateau was examined | 116 (104.62~125.39) | This study |
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Share and Cite
Li, X.; Ji, Y.; Zhou, G.; Zhou, L.; Li, X.; He, X.; Tian, Z. A New Method for Bare Permafrost Extraction on the Tibetan Plateau by Integrating Machine Learning and Multi-Source Information. Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 5328. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15225328
Li X, Ji Y, Zhou G, Zhou L, Li X, He X, Tian Z. A New Method for Bare Permafrost Extraction on the Tibetan Plateau by Integrating Machine Learning and Multi-Source Information. Remote Sensing. 2023; 15(22):5328. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15225328
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, **aoyang, Yuhe Ji, Guangsheng Zhou, Li Zhou, **aopeng Li, **aohui He, and Zhihui Tian. 2023. "A New Method for Bare Permafrost Extraction on the Tibetan Plateau by Integrating Machine Learning and Multi-Source Information" Remote Sensing 15, no. 22: 5328. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15225328