The Sun and Space Weather
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Basic Properties of CMEs
2.1. Morphological Properties
2.2. Physical Properties
2.3. Kinematic Properties
2.4. CME Mass and Kinetic Energy
3. CME Source Regions, Flares, and Filaments
4. CMEs and Radio Bursts
5. Solar Connection to Geomagnetic Storms
5.1. CMEs and Geomagnetic Storms
5.2. Coronal Holes and Geomagnetic Storms
6. Solar Eruptions and SEPs
7. Space Weather Events and Spacecraft Anomalies
8. Solar Cycle Variation of Space Weather Events
8.1. CME Rate–Sunspot Number Relationship
8.2. Solar Cycle Dependence of Space Weather Consequences
9. Extreme Space Weather Events
10. Concluding Remarks
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | CIR | Solar Wind | Ratio | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean | |||
Density [cm−3] | 2.4–81.0 | 29.3 | 6.7 | 2.93 |
Dynamic pressure [nPa] | 1.4–57.2 | 10.5 | 2.3 | 4.57 |
Temperature [105 K] | 0.97–26.35 | 4.91 | 1.02 | 4.81 |
Magnetic field [nT] | 4.6–44.9 | 14.8 | 5.5 | 2.69 |
Duration [hr] | 2.75–82.10 | 26.47 | ---- | ---- |
Extent [au] | 0.03–0.98 | 0.31 | ---- | ---- |
CME Date | Time (UT) | Speed (km/s) | Location | Ip (GOES) | Ip (STB) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
28 December 2001 | 20:30 | 2216 | S26E90 | 76 | --- |
8 January 2002 | 17:54 | 1794 | >NE90 | 28 | --- |
27 July 2005 | 04:54 | 1787 | N11E90 | 41 | --- |
22 September 2011 | 10:48 | 1905 | N09E89 | 35 | 5000 |
21 June 2013 | 03:12 | 1900 | S16E73 | 14 | 100 |
25 Febraury 2014 | 01:25 | 2147 | S12E82 | 24 | 300 |
Particle Type | Energy Range | Effects | Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Electrons | 10–100 keV | Spacecraft charging | Trapped particles |
Electrons | >100 keV | Deep dielectric charging, solar cell damage | Trapped particles |
Electrons | >1 MeV | Radiation damage (ionization) | Trapped/quasi trapped |
Protons | 0.1–1 MeV | Surface damage to materials | Trapped particles |
Protons | 1–10 MeV | Displacement damage in solar cells | Trapped particles, ESP |
Protons | >10 MeV | Ionization, displacement damage; sensor background | Radiation belt, SEPs, GCRs |
Protons | >30 MeV | Damage to biological systems | Radiation belt, SEPs, GCRs |
Protons | >50 MeV | Single event effects | Radiation belt, SEPs, GCRs |
Ions | >10 MeV/nuc | Single event effects | SEPs, GCRs |
Protons | >500 MeV | Single event effects, hazard to humans in polar flights and in deep space | SEPs, GCRs |
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Gopalswamy, N. The Sun and Space Weather. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 1781. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13111781
Gopalswamy N. The Sun and Space Weather. Atmosphere. 2022; 13(11):1781. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13111781
Chicago/Turabian StyleGopalswamy, Nat. 2022. "The Sun and Space Weather" Atmosphere 13, no. 11: 1781. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13111781