Biomimetic Aquatic Robots Based on Fluid-Driven Actuators: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Classification of Locomotion Modes
3. Classification of Fluid Actuation Methods
3.1. McKibben-Type Actuator
3.2. Pneu-Net Actuator
3.3. Vacuum-Powered Buckling Actuator
3.4. Combustion Actuation
4. Biomimetic Aquatic Robot Using Fluid Actuation
4.1. McKibben-Type Actuated Aquatic Robots
4.1.1. Undulation/Oscillation Motion
Robot Name | Actuator | Locomotion Mode | Size (mm) | Weight (kg) | Speed (cm/s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Manta swimming robot [83] | McKibben | Undulation/oscillation | 170 × 150 | N/A | 10 |
Robo-ray II [85] | McKibben | Undulation/oscillation | 320 × 560 | 3.8 | 8–16 |
Tethered-free streaming fish [86,87] | McKibben | Undulation/oscillation | 580 × 190 × 140 | ~5 | 90 |
Eel-inspired soft robot [84] | McKibben | Undulation/oscillation | 26 (diameter) × 240 (for actuator) | N/A | 2.88 (average), 5.45 (maximum) |
Frog-inspired robot [88] | McKibben | Rowing | 590 × 340 | 12 | N/A |
Soft underwater walking robot [52] | McKibben | Walking | N/A | 0.356 | 1.5 |
Robotic tuna [89] | Pneu-Net | Undulation/oscillation | 2400 × 1000 | 173.1 | 125 |
Autonomous soft robotic fish [22] | Pneu-Net | Undulation/oscillation | 339 × 51 | N/A | 15 |
Robotic fish [55] | Pneu-Net | Undulation/oscillation | 450 × 190 × 130 | 1.65 | 10 |
SoFi [53] | Pneu-Net | Undulation/oscillation | 470 × 230 × 180 | 1.6 | 3.2 |
Eel-inspired robot [90] | Pneu-Net | Undulation/oscillation | 255 × 45 | N/A | 1.25 |
High-speed swimmer [75] | Pneu-Net | Undulation/oscillation | 150 | 0.091 | ~11.7 |
Soft flap**-wing robot [91] | Pneu-Net | Undulation/oscillation | 150 | 0.0028 | 56.1 |
Soft robotic jellyfish [48] | Pneu-Net | Jet propulsion | 210 | N/A | N/A |
FludoJelly [56] | Pneu-Net | Jet propulsion | 220 | ~0.6 | 16 |
Bistable jellyfish-like soft robot [74] | Pneu-Net | Jet propulsion | ~200 | N/A | 5.33 |
Robotic dog [92] | Pneu-Net | Rowing | 700 | 2.3 | 2.1 |
Frog-inspired robot [57,93] | Pneu-Net | Rowing | 175 × 100 × 60 | 1.29 | 7.5 |
Rowing arthrobot [94] | Pneu-Net | Rowing | 500 | 0.025 | N/A |
Swimming robot [95] | Vacuum buckling | Jet propulsion | 220 | N/A | 5.53 |
A rowing swimmer [76] | Vacuum buckling | Rowing | ~50 | N/A | ~2.4 |
4.1.2. Rowing Motion
4.1.3. Walking Motion
4.2. Pneu-Net Actuated Robot
4.2.1. Undulation/Oscillation Motion
4.2.2. Jet Propulsion Motion
4.3. Vacuum-Powered Buckling Actuator
4.4. Other Fluid Actuation Methods
5. Discussion on Biomimetic Aquatic Robot Design
5.1. Actuation Method
5.1.1. McKibben Actuator
Actuation Methods | Description | Working Pressure (MPa) | Frequency (Hz) | Advantages and Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|---|
McKibben muscle | • Composed of inserted elastic tube and restricting outer shell • Expansion direction related to the geometric arrangement of the restricting shell | 0.15 to 0.6 [83,88] | 0.4 to 2 [84] | • Simple structure and manual processing • Withstands high air pressure • High friction loss • Difficult for mass manufacturing |
Pneu-Net | • Consisting of an extensible layer, inextensible layer, and air chamber • The difference in elastic modulus of the two layers leads to deformation | 0.01 to 0.09 [57,75] | 0.8 to 5.2 [74,90] | • Simple structure and easy manufacturing • Low required pressure for large deformation • Only bending motion |
Vacuum buckling | • Composed of an interconnected chamber and elastic beam • Negative pressure causes contracted connected chambers, leading to bend and buckle | −0.002 to −0.1 [76,95] | 0.6 to 2 [76,95] | • Compact structure • Limited propulsion force • Requires vacuum pump |
Combustion | • High-temperature and high-pressure gas generated by chemical reaction to produce momentum | ~0.1 [101] | <1 [102] | • High propulsion force • Limited frequency due to gas circulating • Potential environmental damage |
5.1.2. Pneu-Net Actuator
5.1.3. Vacuum Buckling Actuator
5.1.4. Combustion Actuation
5.1.5. Working Fluid Selection
5.2. Locomotion Modes
5.3. Biomimetic Gaits
5.4. Structural Design
5.5. Control
6. Challenges and Future Prospects
- Fluid source and transportation. At present, most fluid-driven biomimetic aquatic robots usually use external tubes for fluid supply [94,95]. Although external sources are suitable for tasks requiring low mobility, they will significantly limit the scope of operation and affect workability. Some works contain pumps or gas tanks with the robot for fluid source and transportation [55,88], but they increase the weight of the robot and flexibility is reduced. Therefore, the trade-off effect between mobility and flexibility should be considered.
- System reliability of the fluid actuating system. Fluid-driven biomimetic robots often use multiple actuators to form a connected fluid actuation network to amplify the propulsion force [87]. If an actuator is damaged, the whole system may fail and get lost in the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a corresponding antidamage structure to prevent failure or design a damage management system so that the whole robotic system keeps working or calls for help;
- Bionic design from various perspectives. Most biomimetic robots are mainly concentrated on structural and locomotion imitation. With the development of multifunctional soft robots, more results have been obtained on functional imitation, such as fast escape from the dangerous region [22,97]. Based on artificial neural networks, machine learning, visual recognition, and other technologies, the characteristics of biomimetic robots will be closer to natural creatures.
- Deep-sea biomimetic robots. Currently, the workspace of aquatic robots is still limited to the water surface or shallow water. However, the desire to explore the ocean calls for more robots that can enter the deep sea. Traditional ROVs or AUVs produce much noise due to screw propellers, which may scare away underwater animals. Biomimetic robots have the potential for better underwater observation, and some aquatic bionic robots have entered deep into the sea, such as in the Mariana Trench [30]. More study needs to be conducted on deep-sea biomimetic robots.
- Human–machine cooperation control. Robots are often inseparable from the management and supervision of humans in practice. However, an operator can only control one robot, which requires high human resources and limited operational efficiency. The demand for multiple robots working together will become more and more prominent in the future, such as joint salvage. How to realise the collaborative control between people and robots, or robots themselves, and break the one-to-one pattern of human control will also become a research hotspot in biomimetic aquatic robots.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Babel, F.; Vogt, A.; Hock, P.; Kraus, J.; Angerer, F.; Seufert, T.; Baumann, M. Step Aside! VR-Based Evaluation of Adaptive Robot Conflict Resolution Strategies for Domestic Service Robots. Int. J. Soc. Robot. 2022, 14, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Montobbio, F.; Staccioli, J.; Virgillito, M.E.; Vivarelli, M. Robots and the origin of their labour-saving impact. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 2022, 174, 121122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, E.-Z.; Lee, C.-C.; Li, Y. Assessing the impact of industrial robots on manufacturing energy intensity in 38 countries. Energy Econ. 2022, 105, 105748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, G.; Phan, T.V.; Li, S.; Wang, J.; Peng, Y.; Chen, G.; Qu, J.; Goldman, D.I.; Levin, S.A.; Pienta, K.; et al. Robots as models of evolving systems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2022, 119, e2120019119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, K.L.; Kastein, H.; Peterson, T.; Clark, C.; White, C.; Lowe, C. Using time of flight distance calculations for tagged shark localization witn an AUV. In Proceedings of the 18th International Symposium on Unmanned Untethered Submersible Technology: UUST 2013, Portsmouth, NH, USA, 11–14 August 2013; pp. 171–181. [Google Scholar]
- Tan, X.B. Autonomous Robotic Fish as Mobile Sensor Platforms: Challenges and Potential Solutions. Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 2011, 45, 31–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Christianson, C.; Bayag, C.; Li, G.; Jadhav, S.; Giri, A.; Agba, C.; Li, T.; Tolley, M.T. Jellyfish-Inspired Soft Robot Driven by Fluid Electrode Dielectric Organic Robotic Actuators. Front. Robot. AI 2019, 126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Conte, J.; Modarres-Sadeghi, Y.; Watts, M.N.; Hover, F.S.; Triantafyllou, M.S. A fast-starting mechanical fish that accelerates at 40 m s−2. Bioinspir. Biomim. 2010, 5, 035004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Colgate, J.E.; Lynch, K.M. Mechanics and control of swimming: A review. IEEE J. Ocean. Eng. 2004, 29, 660–673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Youssef, S.M.; Soliman, M.; Saleh, M.A.; Mousa, M.A.; Elsamanty, M.; Radwan, A.G. Underwater Soft Robotics: A Review of Bioinspiration in Design, Actuation, Modeling, and Control. Micromachines 2022, 13, 110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bogue, R. Underwater robots: A review of technologies and applications. Ind. Robot. 2015, 42, 186–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.; He, Q.; Cai, S. Artificial Muscles for Underwater Soft Robotic System. In Bioinspired Sensing, Actuation, and Control in Underwater Soft Robotic Systems; Paley, D.A., Wereley, N.M., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021; pp. 71–97. [Google Scholar]
- Castaño, M.L.; Tan, X. Model Predictive Control-Based Path-Following for Tail-Actuated Robotic Fish. J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control. 2019, 141, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Salazar, R.; Campos, A.; Fuentes, V.; Abdelkefi, A. A review on the modeling, materials, and actuators of aquatic unmanned vehicles. Ocean Eng. 2019, 172, 257–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rich, S.I.; Wood, R.J.; Majidi, C. Untethered soft robotics. Nat. Electron. 2018, 1, 102–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sfakiotakis, M.; Lane, D.M.; Davies, J.B.C. Review of fish swimming modes for aquatic locomotion. IEEE J. Ocean. Eng. 1999, 24, 237–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Palmisano, J.; Geder, J.; Rarriairiurti, R.; Liu, K.J.; Cohen, J.J.; Mengesha, T.; Naciri, J.; Sandberg, W.; Ratna, B. Design, Development, and Testing of Flap** Fins with Actively Controlled Curvature for an Unmanned Underwater Vehicle; Springer: Tokyo, Japan, 2008; pp. 283–294. [Google Scholar]
- Guo, J. Optimal measurement strategies for target tracking by a biomimetic underwater vehicle. Ocean Eng. 2008, 35, 473–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hou, Y.L.; Hu, X.Z.; Zeng, D.X.; Zhou, Y.L. Biomimetic Shoulder Complex Based on 3-PSS/S Spherical Parallel Mechanism. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. 2015, 28, 29–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fish, F.E.; Kocak, D.M. Biomimetics and Marine Technology: An Introduction. Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 2011, 45, 8–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Villanueva, A.; Smith, C.; Priya, S. A biomimetic robotic jellyfish (Robojelly) actuated by shape memory alloy composite actuators. Bioinspir. Biomim. 2011, 6, 036004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marchese, A.D.; Onal, C.D.; Rus, D. Autonomous Soft Robotic Fish Capable of Escape Maneuvers Using Fluidic Elastomer Actuators. Soft Robot 2014, 1, 75–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aubin, C.A.; Choudhury, S.; Jerch, R.; Archer, L.A.; Pikul, J.H.; Shepherd, R.F. Electrolytic vascular systems for energy-dense robots. Nature 2019, 571, 51–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ulloa, C.C.; Terrile, S.; Barrientos, A. Soft Underwater Robot Actuated by Shape-Memory Alloys “JellyRobcib” for Path Tracking through Fuzzy Visual Control. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.L.; Hang, G.R.; Li, J.A.; Wang, Y.W.; ** and classification for foothold selection in a walking robot. J. Field Robot. 2011, 28, 497–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chu, W.S.; Lee, K.T.; Song, S.H.; Han, M.W.; Lee, J.Y.; Kim, H.S.; Kim, M.S.; Park, Y.J.; Cho, K.J.; Ahn, S.H. Review of biomimetic underwater robots using smart actuators. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. 2012, 13, 1281–1292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kwak, B.; Bae, J. Locomotion of arthropods in aquatic environment and their applications in robotics. Bioinspir. Biomim. 2018, 13, 041002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hou, T.G.; Yang, X.B.; Su, H.H.; Jiang, B.H.; Chen, L.K.; Wang, T.M.; Liang, J.H. Design and Experiments of a Squid-like Aquatic-aerial Vehicle with Soft Morphing Fins and Arms. In Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Montreal, QC, Canada, 20–24 May 2019; Howard, A., Althoefer, K., Arai, F., Arrichiello, F., Caputo, B., Castellanos, J., Hauser, K., Isler, V., Kim, J., Liu, H., et al., Eds.; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2019; pp. 4681–4687. [Google Scholar]
- Chou, C.P.; Hannaford, B. Measurement and modeling of McKibben pneumatic artificial muscles. IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom. 1996, 12, 90–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tondu, B. Modelling of the McKibben artificial muscle: A review. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2012, 23, 225–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guan, Q.H.; Sun, J.; Liu, Y.J.; Wereley, N.M.; Leng, J.S. Novel Bending and Helical Extensile/Contractile Pneumatic Artificial Muscles Inspired by Elephant Trunk. Soft Robot. 2020, 7, 597–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pillsbury, T.E.; Wereley, N.M.; Guan, Q.H. Comparison of contractile and extensile pneumatic artificial muscles. Smart Mater. Struct. 2017, 26, 095034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bishop-Moser, J.; Krishnan, G.; Kim, C.; Kota, S. Kinematic Synthesis of Fiber Reinforced Soft Actuators in Paralell Combinations. In Proceedings of the ASME 2012 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference, Chicago, IL, USA, 12–12 August 2012; pp. 1079–1087. [Google Scholar]
- Suzumori, K.; Iikura, S.; Tanaka, H. Flexible Microactuator for Miniature Robots. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Nara, Japan, 30–32 January 1991; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 1991; pp. 204–209. [Google Scholar]
- Bishop-Moser, J.; Krishnan, G.; Kim, C.; Kota, S. Design of Soft Robotic Actuators using Fluid-filled Fiber-Reinforced Elastomeric Enclosures in Parallel Combinations. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Ilamoura-Algarve, Portugal, 7–12 October 2012; pp. 4264–4269. [Google Scholar]
- Ilievski, F.; Mazzeo, A.D.; Shepherd, R.F.; Chen, X.; Whitesides, G.M. Soft Robotics for Chemists. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 1890–1895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mosadegh, B.; Polygerinos, P.; Keplinger, C.; Wennstedt, S.; Shepherd, R.F.; Gupta, U.; Shim, J.; Bertoldi, K.; Walsh, C.J.; Whitesides, G.M. Pneumatic Networks for Soft Robotics that Actuate Rapidly. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2014, 24, 2163–2170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Katzschmann, R.K.; Marchese, A.D.; Rus, D. Autonomous Object Manipulation Using a Soft Planar Gras** Manipulator. Soft Robot. 2015, 2, 155–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wang, Z.K.; Zhu, M.Z.; Kawamura, S.; Hirai, S. Comparison of different soft grippers for lunch box packaging. Robot. Biomim. 2017, 4, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hao, Y.F.; Gong, Z.Y.; ** for high-speed and high-efficient, butterfly swimming-like soft flap**-wing robot. ar**+for+high-speed+and+high-efficient,+butterfly+swimming-like+soft+flap**-wing+robot&author=Yinding,+C.&author=Yaoye,+H.&author=Yao,+Z.&author=Yanbin,+L.&author=Jie,+Y.&publication_year=2022&journal=ar** Robotic Module Based on Liquid Metals. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2021, 23, 2100515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tolley, M.T.; Shepherd, R.F.; Karpelson, M.; Bartlett, N.W.; Galloway, K.C.; Wehner, M.; Nunes, R.; Whitesides, G.M.; Wood, R.J. An untethered jum** soft robot. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Chicago, IL USA, 14–18 September 2014; pp. 561–566. [Google Scholar]
- Drucker, E.G.; Lauder, G.V. Locomotor forces on a swimming fish: Three-dimensional vortex wake dynamics quantified using digital particle image velocimetry. J. Exp. Biol. 1999, 202, 2393–2412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kikuchi, K.; Uehara, Y.; Kubota, Y.; Mochizuki, O. Morphological Considerations of Fish Fin Shape on Thrust Generation. J. Appl. Fluid Mech. 2014, 7, 625–632. [Google Scholar]
- Feilich, K.L.; Lauder, G.V. Passive mechanical models of fish caudal fins: Effects of shape and stiffness on self-propulsion. Bioinspir. Biomim. 2015, 10, 036002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wen, L.; Wang, T.M.; Wu, G.H.; Liang, J.H. Quantitative Thrust Efficiency of a Self-Propulsive Robotic Fish: Experimental Method and Hydrodynamic Investigation. IEEE-ASME Trans. Mechatron. 2013, 18, 1027–1038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, J.Y.; Davison, I.G.; DeMont, M.E. Dynamics and energetics of scallop locomotion. J. Exp. Biol. 1996, 199, 1931–1946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rogers, E.; Polygerinos, P.; Walsh, C.; Goldfield, E. Smart and Connected Actuated Mobile and Sensing Suit to Encourage Motion in Developmentally Delayed Infants1. J. Med. Devices 2015, 9, 1027–1038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Locomotion Mode | Locomotion Law | Imitated Animal |
---|---|---|
Undulation/oscillation | Tuna, tortoise | |
Jet propulsion | Jellyfish | |
Rowing | Frogs, ducks | |
Walking | Centre of mass ∈ supporting surface | Sea crabs |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Bu, K.; Gong, X.; Yu, C.; **e, F. Biomimetic Aquatic Robots Based on Fluid-Driven Actuators: A Review. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 735. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10060735
Bu K, Gong X, Yu C, **e F. Biomimetic Aquatic Robots Based on Fluid-Driven Actuators: A Review. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2022; 10(6):735. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10060735
Chicago/Turabian StyleBu, Kunlang, **aobo Gong, Changli Yu, and Fang **e. 2022. "Biomimetic Aquatic Robots Based on Fluid-Driven Actuators: A Review" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 10, no. 6: 735. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10060735