Artificial Seaweed Reefs That Support the Establishment of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Beds and Facilitate Ocean Macroalgal Afforestation: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Benefits of Macroalgal Forests
3.1. CO2 Reduction
3.2. Creation of Marine Habitats
3.3. Products That Aid Human Well-Being and Serve as Functional Foods
3.4. Other Useful Materials
3.5. Sources of Pure Bioenergy
4. Threats to Macroalgae
4.1. Ocean Warming and Marine Heatwaves
4.2. El Niño Events
4.3. Grazing
4.4. Commercial Kelp Harvesting
4.5. Increased Sediment Load
4.6. Pollution
4.7. High-Energy Storms or Swells
4.8. Multiple Factors
5. Restoration of Macroalgae
5.1. Spore Transplantation
5.2. Vegetative Transplantation
5.3. Green Gravel
6. Artificial Seaweed Reefs
6.1. The Pendleton Artificial Reef in Southern California
6.2. Artificial Seaweed Reefs in Japan
6.3. Artificial Seaweed Reefs of South Korea
7. Marine Forest Projects in South Korea
7.1. Marine Forest Formation
7.2. Seed Banks
7.3. Marine Gardening Day
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Theme | Search String |
---|---|
Marine afforestation | (marine afforestation OR marine forest* OR macroalgal forest* OR formation* OR creation* OR aquatic vegetation bed* OR macroalgae OR seaweed OR kelp OR ecosystem* OR enhancement* OR function* OR restoration* OR benefit* OR threat* OR project*) |
Benefits | (macroalgae OR seaweed OR kelp OR CO2 reduction OR marine habitats OR human well-being OR food* OR material* OR bioenergy) |
Threats | (macroalgae OR seaweed OR kelp OR ocean warming OR marine heatwave* OR El Niño OR grazing OR harvesting OR sediment OR pollution OR storm* OR swell*) |
Artificial seaweed reefs | (artificial OR man-made OR macroalgae OR seaweed OR kelp OR reef* OR marine forest OR bed*) |
Criterion | Inclusion | Exclusion |
---|---|---|
Study type | Empirical and theoretical/conceptual studies. Peer-reviewed; technical books/conference articles/technical reports included if high quality; current practices and web data included if valuable | Current practices proposed, but no evidence in use |
Language | English; Korean if necessary | Any other language |
Date | 2000 to 2022; subsequently extended to the 1990s, 1980s, 1970s, and 1960s if necessary | Any study published before 1960 |
Relevance | (i) Marine afforestation, marine forest; (ii) benefits/functions of macroalgae (or seaweed or kelp); (iii) threats to macroalgae (or seaweed or kelp); (iv) restoration/enhancement of macroalgae (or seaweed or kelp), relevant techniques and methods; (v) artificial seaweed reefs (Japan, Korea, and USA); (vi) Korean involvement in marine forest formation projects | (i) Not directly relevant to the research question; (ii) artificial reefs not oriented to marine forest formation; (iii) seaweed aquaculture oriented techniques/methods; (iv) level of analysis: not firm-level practices and processes |
No. | Benefits (or Functions) |
---|---|
1 | It reduces greenhouse gas by absorbing CO2 from the water and air. It has excellent efficiency in reducing CO2, compared to temperate forests and tropical rain forests. It purifies the marine environment by providing dissolved oxygen and eliminating water pollutants. |
2 | The forest provides a habitat for marine life. It acts as a spawning ground and growing area for reproduction of marine life, provides food for algae-eating marine creatures, and enhances the basic productive capacity of coastal areas as the primary producer in the ocean. |
3 | It is food that contributes to well-being, highlighted by high-protein levels while being a low-calorie diet food. It contains many useful elements for the human body including vitamins and minerals (e.g., iodine and magnesium). |
4 | It provides useful/functional materials for medicine, food, and industrial goods (e.g., fucoidan, seanol, alginic acid, and sun block). It absorbs and supplies rare industrial metals (e.g., uranium and lithium) from the sea. |
5 | It is a source of pure bio energy as bioethanol, superior to biomass from grains and wood (3rd-generation biomass). |
Material | Total | Intended Purpose (Target Species) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fish | Fish–Shellfish | Shellfish– Seaweed | Marine Forest | Sea Cucumber | ||
RC § | 41 | 10 | 5 | 18 | 7 | 1 |
Concrete | 3 | – | – | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Steel | 20 | 20 | – | – | – | – |
Complex | 25 | 9 | 3 | 9 | 4 | – |
Total | 89 | 39 | 8 | 28 | 12 | 2 |
Ranks | Criteria | Causes |
---|---|---|
1 | Coverage of crustose coralline algae: 40–60% (coverage of seaweed: 60–80%) | ① Seaweed feeding by herbivores: 30 g m−2 day−1; ② Number of herbivores: 5–10 m−2; ③ Seaweed state: decrease in large brown algae and perennial seaweeds, increase in small red algae |
2 | Coverage of crustose coralline algae: 60–80% (coverage of seaweed: 20–40%) | ① Seaweed feeding by herbivores: 40–60 g m−2 day−1; ② Number of herbivores: 10–20 m−2; ③ Seaweed state: signs of disappearance of large brown algae, colonies of small perennial red algae |
3 | Coverage of crustose coralline algae: ≥80% (coverage of seaweed: <20%) | ① Seaweed feeding by herbivores: 70 g m−2 day−1; ② Number of herbivores: ≥20 m−2; ③ Seaweed state: disappearance of large brown algae, colonies of small perennial red algae |
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Jung, S.; Chau, T.V.; Kim, M.; Na, W.-B. Artificial Seaweed Reefs That Support the Establishment of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Beds and Facilitate Ocean Macroalgal Afforestation: A Review. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 1184. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10091184
Jung S, Chau TV, Kim M, Na W-B. Artificial Seaweed Reefs That Support the Establishment of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Beds and Facilitate Ocean Macroalgal Afforestation: A Review. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2022; 10(9):1184. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10091184
Chicago/Turabian StyleJung, Somi, Than Van Chau, Minju Kim, and Won-Bae Na. 2022. "Artificial Seaweed Reefs That Support the Establishment of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Beds and Facilitate Ocean Macroalgal Afforestation: A Review" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 10, no. 9: 1184. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10091184