The Images of Jesus and the Virgin Mary in the Early Qing Collection of Taoist Immortal Stories

Abstract

The book Lidai Shenxian Tongjian (The Comprehensive Mirror of Immortals Throughout the Dynasties), a compilation of Taoist narratives from the early Qing dynasty, contains a dedicated section on “The Life of Jesus,” accompanied by two images portraying Jesus and the Virgin Mary. “The Life of Jesus” is believed to have originated from Gaspar Ferreira’s Nianzhu Guicheng (Rule for the Recitation of the Rosary) and Diego de Pantoja’s Tianzhu Yesu Shounan Shimo (The Passion of the Lord Jesus). The narratives and images of Christian content within Tongjian showcase the influence of Chinese Ming–Qing Taoist immortal stories and the indigenization of Christianity that resulted in a fusion of Chinese and Western cultural elements. Multiple versions of the accompanying images exist in different editions of Tongjian, indicating an evolution in the depictions of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. Through a comparative analysis of these images and their variations, we can glean valuable insights into the Qing dynasty editors’ reception of Western culture, shedding light on the process of localizing Christianity during the Ming–Qing period and emphasizing the significance of the cultural exchange and mutual understanding between Chinese and Western civilizations.

1. Introduction

The book Lidai Shenxian Tongjian 歷代神仙通鑒 (“The Comprehensive Mirror of Immortals Throughout the Dynasties” (henceforth, “Tongjian”)), published in 1712, is a captivating work that encompasses a collection of Taoist stories. It intriguingly includes biographies of religious leaders from various traditions, such as Confucius from Confucianism, Gautama Buddha from Buddhism, Jesus Christ from Christianity, and the Prophet Muhammad from Islam. The inclusion of stories featuring leaders from different religions in the Taoist knowledge system in this book raises a series of questions: (1) Despite being a collection of Taoist stories, why and how does Tongjian incorporate content from other religions? (2) How does the book effectively integrate content from other religions while maintaining the central position of Taoism? (3) What unique characteristics define the multi-religious fusion portrayed in the book? (4) Do these distinct features exhibit regional and temporal variations? In the subsequent discussion, I will attempt to answer these related questions by using relevant examples.

Before delving into these inquiries, it is essential to provide a concise introduction to the relevant information on this book and to present my research findings based on a preliminary investigation of its different versions. Tongjian, a complex book originally published during the early Qing period, has undergone multiple editions, leading to confusion and misunderstandings in previous research (Wen and Wen 2006, p. 369). Hence, it is crucial to present some fundamental information regarding the different editions:1

(1)

Volume compilation: Tongjian consists of 22 volumes, initially compiled by Xu Dao 徐道 (17 volumes) and continued by Cheng Yuqi 程毓奇 (5 volumes);

(2)

Endorsement from Zhang Jizong 張繼宗: In the year 1700 (the Gengchen year of the Kangxi reign “康熙庚辰年”, as mentioned in the preface), Xu Dao sought endorsement from Zhang Jizong, a prominent Taoist leader known as The Celestial Master of the Dragon and Tiger 龍虎天師;

(3)

Printing process: With financial support from some close friends, Xu Dao initiated the printing process in 1705.

Based on my research findings, the following points deserve more attention:

(1)

Completion date: The editing of the 22-volume Tongjian was finalized no later than 1700, and the earliest possible completion date is believed to be 1712 (the fifty-first year of the Kangxi reign 康熙五十一年), when the book was officially published. This contradicts some prior scholars who inaccurately indicated the first-edition date as 1700, 1701, or 1705 (Xu and Cheng 1712, prefaces;)

(2)

Editor attribution: Erroneous attributions have been made regarding the editor, falsely associating individuals like Zhang Jizong with the book, which is incorrect. The correct information is as stated above;

(3)

Originality and detail: Despite numerous reprints of Tongjian after its initial publication, none of the subsequent versions matched the meticulousness and level of detail found in the 1712 first edition. In particular, the reprints or rearranged editions from the late Qing Dynasty period failed to attain the same level of exquisite craftsmanship as the first edition;

(4)

Reprint and prefaces: In 1722 (the sixty-first year of the Kangxi reign 康熙六十一年), the book underwent a reprint under the title “Sanjiao Tongyuanlu” 三教同源錄 (Records of the Common Origins of Three Religions), featuring the addition of several prefaces;

(5)

Re-editing and publishing: The contemporary scholar Chen Rongmen 陳榕門 (1696–1771), also known as Chen Hongmou 陳宏謀, may have participated in the subsequent re-edition of the book. Following Chen’s demise, a new edition called Chen’s Critical Edition was first published in 1787 (Chen 1787, preface), and it was reprinted several times thereafter.2 However, the primary content of this edition remained unaltered from the 1712 first edition, which could be because the publisher employed a renowned name to augment the book’s market appeal and potential sales;

(6)

Other editions and versions: Various alternative versions of the book exist, attributed to different editors. One notable edition is known as ** Guangji Chao 太**廣記鈔. This book was compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 (1574–1646), a novelist from the Ming Dynasty (Feng 2019, pp. 135–36).

In Feng Menglong’s work, there is a passage about the “West River Maiden” that reads as follows in the Chinese text: “雍州人，入華山得道。……漢遣使行經西河，於城東見女子笞一老翁，頭白如雪，跪而受杖，怪而問之。” Here is my English rendition: “She hailed from Yongzhou10, ventured into Mount Hua, and attained enlightenment to transcend into an immortal being… During the Han Dynasty, an envoy was dispatched and traversed through a locale known as the Western River. On the eastern outskirts of the town, they chanced upon a young woman vigorously chastising an elderly man. This aged individual possessed hair as white as snow and humbly knelt to endure the thrashing with a cane. Intrigued and perplexed by this spectacle, they inquired about the situation.” At this moment, the West River Maiden responds, disclosing that the person subjected to the cane punishment is her 71-year-old son, while she herself has already reached the age of 130 years.

In summary, Tongjian is a compilation of writings that assimilates the ideas of previous authors and draws inspiration from similar works of the past. Scholars during the Qing Dynasty possibly viewed the concept of “Yuanxi” (“the far west”) and “** the artistic and conceptual aspects of these depictions. Secondly, the distinctive characteristics of Ming and Qing immortal genealogies contributed to the specific portrayals of divine figures. Furthermore, the dissemination and localization of Jesuit missionaries in China exerted an influence on the artistic representations of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. These images serve as evidence of the dynamic dialogue and integration between contemporary Chinese and Western religions and cultures. They exemplify how local literati adeptly incorporated indigenous elements into their artistic expressions, effectively transforming foreign content into a distinct local style.