Mechanical Performance and Applications of CNTs Reinforced Polymer Composites—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanical Characteristics of CNTs
3. Factors Influencing the Mechanical Performance of CNTs Reinforced Polymer Composites
4. Mechanical Performance of CNTs Reinforced Polymer Composites
5. Potential Applications of CNTs
6. Environmental, Health, and Safety Concerns in Utilisation of CNTs
6.1. Aspect Ratio
6.2. Length
6.3. Surface Area
6.4. Concentration
7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | CNTs | Matrix | Fabrication Method | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
1998 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | Solution casting–curing | [7] |
1999 | CNTs | PVA | Solution casting | [8] |
2002 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | CVD–injection molding | [9] |
2002 | MWCNTs | PS | Spin-casting | [10] |
2003 | SWCNTs | Alumina | Spark-plasma sintering | [11] |
2003 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | Solution-casting | [12] |
2004 | MWCNTs | P(MMA-co-EMA) | Solution-mixing | [13] |
2004 | MWCNTs | Nylon 6 | Melt compounding | [14] |
2005 | MWCNTs | PA | In situ polymerization | [15] |
2006 | MWCNT–NH2 | Nylon 6 | Solution-casting–melt compounding | [16] |
2007 | MWCNTs | Aluminium | Isostatic pressing–hot extrusion techniques | [17] |
2007 | SWCNTs | PVC | Film casting | [18] |
2007 | MWCNTs | PVC | Film casting | [18] |
2008 | MWCNTs | PMMA | CVD–solvent casting | [19] |
2008 | MWCNTs | PS | CVD– solvent casting | [19] |
2010 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | Ultrasonication technique–sputtering | [20] |
2010 | DWCNTs | Magnesia | In situ polymerization–spark-plasma-sintering | [21] |
2010 | MWCNTs | PP | Melt mixing–in situ polymerization | [22] |
2011 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | Chemical functionalization–cast molding | [3] |
2013 | Dense-CNTs | PP | CVD | [23] |
2014 | MWCNTs | PVC | Film casting | [24] |
2015 | Amino-MWCNTs | Epoxy | Direct stirring–resin infusion molding | [25] |
2015 | MWCNTs | HDPE | Melt-mixing–compression molding | [26] |
2016 | SWCNTs | Chitosan | Solution-casting | [27] |
2016 | CNTs | Epoxy | Press cured method | [28] |
2017 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | EPD | [29] |
2018 | MWCNTs | PMMA | Chemical functionalization–micro compounding–injection molding | [30] |
2019 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | Non-destructive synthesis technique | [31] |
2020 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | Solution-casting–hand lay-up–resin infusion | [32] |
2020 | MWCNTs | PVC | CVD–ultrasonic dispersion–extrusion | [33] |
2020 | MWCNTs | PVC | CVD–ultrasonic dispersion–extrusion | [33] |
2021 | MWCNTs | Epoxy | Resin castings (injection-molding) | [34] |
Reinforcement Materials | Young’s Modulus (TPa) | Tensile Strength (GPa) |
---|---|---|
SWCNTs | 0.65 to 5.5 | 126 |
MWCNTs | 0.2 to 1.0 | >63 |
Monolayer Graphene | 1.0 | 130 |
Stainless steel | 0.186 to 0.214 | 0.38 to 1.55 |
Kevlar | 0.06 to 0.18 | 3.6 to 3.8 |
Diamond | 1.22 | >60 |
Aluminium | 71 | 0.65 |
Glass fibres | 72 | 3 |
Carbon fibres | 300 | 3 |
Silicon carbide fibres | 450 | 10 |
Sugar palm fibre | 0.0049 | 0.00016 |
Kenaf fibre | 0.053 | 0.00025 |
Bamboo fibre | 0.0011 to 0.0017 | 0.00014 to 0.00023 |
Reinforcement Materials | Matrix | Mechanical Strength | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tensile Strength (MPa) | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Impact Strength (J/m) | Elastic Modulus (GPa) | Hardness (GPa) | |||
CB | PVC | 35 (−34%) | - | - | - | - | [85] |
CB | PP | 25 (−47%) | - | - | 0.25 (−23%) | - | [86] |
CB | PP | 60 (100%) | 68 (70%) | 56 (65%) | 4.2 (68%) | - | [87] |
CB | Epoxy | 58 (190%) | 90 (125%) | - | 2.6 (200%) | - | [88] |
CB | Unsaturated polyester | 40 (−14%) | 72 (−25%) | - | 1.3 (80%) | 0.17 (17%) | [89] |
CB | NBR/EPDM | 16.7 | - | - | - | - | [90] |
Carbon fabric | Epoxy | 580 | - | - | 67.5 | - | [91] |
MLG | PVC | 19 (17%) | - | - | 6 (1%) | - | [92] |
Graphene | PVC | 55 (130%) | - | - | 2 (58%) | - | [93] |
Graphite | PS | 29 (16%) | 21 (−28%) | [94] | |||
Graphite | POBDS | NA | 42.5 (0%) | - | - | - | [95] |
Graphene oxide | PMMA | 180 (−18%) | - | - | 8 (−33%) | - | [96] |
Graphene sheets | PS | 40 (60%) | - | - | 2.25 (50%) | - | [97] |
Graphite | Epoxy | 41 (21%) | - | - | 3.3 (10%) | - | [98] |
Graphene | PVC | 140 (8%) | - | - | 5.3 (10%) | - | [24] |
MWCNTs | PVC | NA | - | - | NA | - | [24] |
MWCNTs | Epoxy | - | 105 (110%) | - | - | - | [20] |
MWCNTs | Epoxy | 52.4 | - | - | 3.23 | - | [3] |
MWCNTs | Epoxy | 85.6 (13%) | 121.6 (0.7%) | 23.4 (60%) | 2.9 (10%) | - | [34] |
MWCNTs | Epoxy | 720 (16%)) | - | - | 54 (4%) | - | [31] |
CNTs | Epoxy | - | - | - | 9 (−18%) | - | [28] |
NBCNTs | PVC | 29.5 (−5%) | - | - | 0.35 (0%) | - | [33] |
MWCNTs | PVC | 28 (−9%) | - | - | 0.3 (−14%) | - | [33] |
MWCNTs | P(MMA-co-EMA) | 74 (57%) | - | - | 2.3 (130%) | - | [13] |
MWCNTs | PMMA | 25 (0%) | - | - | 2 (33%) | - | [19] |
MWCNTs | PS | 16 (0%) | - | - | 1.5 (36%) | - | [19] |
MWCNTs | PS | 30.6 (36%) | 3.4 (122%) | [10] | |||
CNTs | PP | 24 (71%) | 34 (35%) | 155 (34%) | - | - | [23] |
CNTs | Epoxy | 1300 (24%) | 1078 (10%) | - | - | - | [29] |
Amino-CNTs | Epoxy | 370 (37%) | 225 (80%) | - | 8 (33.3%) | - | [25] |
MWCNTs | Epoxy | 535.4 (4%) | - | - | - | - | [32] |
MWCNTs | HDPE | - | - | - | 4.7 (47%) | 0.1 (15%) | [26] |
MWCNTs | PP | 35 (25%) | - | 4 (54%) | 0.8 (23%) | - | [22] |
MWCNTs | PA | 65.9 (8.2%) | - | - | - | - | [15] |
MWCNTs | PMMA | 60 (20%) | 1.3 (−36%) | - | - | [30] | |
DWCNTs | Magnesia | - | - | - | - | 12.2 | [21] |
CNTs | Epoxy | - | - | - | 3.7 (19%) | - | [7] |
MWCNTs | Epoxy | 6 (500%) | - | - | 0.5 (290%) | - | [9] |
MWCNTs | Nylon 6 | 40.3 (124%) | - | - | 0.9 (115%) | - | [14] |
MWCNTs | Nylon 6 | 59.3 (70%) | - | - | 3.6 (90%) | 100 (67%) | [16] |
SWCNTs | Alumina | - | - | - | - | 16.1 (−21%) | [11] |
SWCNTs | Chitosan | - | - | - | 8 (25%) | - | [27] |
CNTs | Aluminium | 520 (33%) | 103 (41%) | 1.3 (30%) | [17] |
Category | Benchmark Exposure Level |
---|---|
Fibrous, a high aspect ratio insoluble nanomaterial | 0.01 fibres/mL |
Any nanomaterial that is already classified in its molecular or in its larger particle form a as carcinogenic, mutagenic, reproductive, and sensitizing (CMRS) toxin | 0.1 × OEL |
Insoluble or poorly soluble nanomaterials not in the fibrous or CMRS categories | 0.066 × OEL |
Soluble nanomaterials not in the fibrous or CMRS categories | 0.5 × OEL |
Types of CNTs | Concentration | Biological System | Toxicity | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Plasmid DNA-SWCNTs and Plasmid DNA-MWCNTs | 10 mg/mL | f-CNTs: HeLa cell lines in vitro | 50% survival of HeLa cells | [193] |
Pristine SWCNTs | 7.5 μg/mL water | SWCNT: Mesothelioma cell line MSTO-211H in vitro | 10% decrease in cell proliferation and activity | [194] |
RNA-polymer SWCNTs conjugate | 1 mg/mL | MCF-7 breast cancer cells in vitro | No significant cell damage | [195] |
Pristine MWCNTs | 40 μg/mL | Human T lymphocytes in vitro | No toxicity on human T lymphocytes | [189] |
Ammonium chloride-SWCNTs, and poly(ethylene glycol)-SWCNTs | 10 μg/mL water | Macrophages, B and T lymphocytes from BALB/c mice spleen and lymph nodes in vitro | 5% decrease in viability of B lymphocytes, but no adverse effects on T lymphocytes and macrophages | [196] |
125I-SWCNT-OH | 1.5 μg/mouse | Intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, in male KM mice in vivo | Accumulate in bone, but good biocompatibility | [197] |
Streptavidin-SWCNT | 0.025 mg/mL | HL60 and Jurkat cells in vitro | No adverse effects | [198] |
SWCNTs dispersed in DMEM with 5% (vol/vol) fetal bovine serum | 100 μg/mL | Human epithelial-like HeLa cells in vitro | No effect on growth rate | [199] |
0.5 DMSO pristine SWCNTs | 25 μg/mL | Human embryo kidney (HEK 293) cells in vitro | G1 cell arrest and apoptosis | [200] |
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Nurazzi, N.M.; Sabaruddin, F.A.; Harussani, M.M.; Kamarudin, S.H.; Rayung, M.; Asyraf, M.R.M.; Aisyah, H.A.; Norrrahim, M.N.F.; Ilyas, R.A.; Abdullah, N.; et al. Mechanical Performance and Applications of CNTs Reinforced Polymer Composites—A Review. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2186. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092186
Nurazzi NM, Sabaruddin FA, Harussani MM, Kamarudin SH, Rayung M, Asyraf MRM, Aisyah HA, Norrrahim MNF, Ilyas RA, Abdullah N, et al. Mechanical Performance and Applications of CNTs Reinforced Polymer Composites—A Review. Nanomaterials. 2021; 11(9):2186. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092186
Chicago/Turabian StyleNurazzi, N. M., F. A. Sabaruddin, M. M. Harussani, S. H. Kamarudin, M. Rayung, M. R. M. Asyraf, H. A. Aisyah, M. N. F. Norrrahim, R. A. Ilyas, N. Abdullah, and et al. 2021. "Mechanical Performance and Applications of CNTs Reinforced Polymer Composites—A Review" Nanomaterials 11, no. 9: 2186. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092186