Advances in Analysis and Detection of Major Mycotoxins in Foods
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Extraction Solutions, Extraction Methodologies and Clean-Up Procedures of Mycotoxins
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Extraction Methods | Extraction Solvents | Limits | Benefits | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
QuEChERS | Organic solvents or mixtures (CH3CN, MeOH, MeOH/CH3CN) | Modifications of the original procedure, need of an additional enrichment step | Economical, fast, simple, detection of low ppb levels, better reproducibility and accuracy | [5] |
LLE | Mixture of organic solvents (hexane, cyclohexane) with diluted acids or water | Time consuming, the sample can be absorbed by the glass equipment depending on the matrix and the determined compounds | Effective, for small-scale preparations | [40] |
SLE | Mixture of organic solvents with diluted acids or water | Matrix effects | Smaller volumes of solvent | [32,45] |
ASE or PLE | Mixture of organic solvents (MeOH/CH3CN, CH3CN/water) | Expensive instruments, matrix components excessively coextracted | Fully automated, faster extraction compared to the conventional ones, minimal solvents, higher extraction efficiency | [22,46] |
SFE | Supercritical fluids (CO2), MeOH, ethanol, acetone | Need for specialized and very expensive equipment, not suitable for routine analysis | Fast technique, small solvent volumes, preconcentration effect, extraction of temperature sensible analytes | [22,45,47] |
MAE | Aqueous solution | Only applicable for thermally stable compounds, costly instruments | Reduced extraction time and extraction solvent | [48] |
VALDS–ME | Mixture of organic solvents dispersive solvent and water | Optimization after control a lot of parameters | Use of low density solvents, simple, fast, effective | [20] |
Sample | Origin | Number of Samples | Mycotoxins | LOD | LOQ | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Herbs and herbal products | India | 63 | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, CIT | 10 ng/mL for AFB1 NA for others | NA | [69] |
Herbal medicines | Nigeria | 210 | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 | NA | NA | [70] |
Brazil nuts | Brazil | 67 | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 | NA | 2 mg/kg | [71] |
Almonds, cashew nuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, pistachio nuts, walnuts | Saudi Arabia | 5 | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, CIT, OTs, PAT, T-2, ZEA, ST, DAS | NA | 5 μg/kg (for AFs), NA for others | [72] |
Medicinal plants | Pakistan | 30 | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA | NA | NA | [73] |
Corn-based food products | Brazil | 208 | AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 | NA | 2 µg/kg | [74] |
Mycotoxin | Year of Publication | Country | Sample | Extraction Solution | Extraction Method | Clean-Up | LOD | LOQ * | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AFs | 2014 | China | Walnut kernel | Methanol–water (70:30, v/v) | Sonicating | Self-made amino-function nanometer Fe3O4 magnetic polymer SPE | 0.004–0.013 µg kg−1 | 0.012–0.042 µg kg−1 | [90] |
AFs, OTA Fusarium mycotoxins | 2014 | Italy | Cereals and derived products | Methanol–water (60:40, v/v) | Blending | IAC | 1 µg kg−1 for AFs and OTA 5–30 µg kg−1 for Fusarium toxins | Nd | [52] |
5 Alternaria mycotoxins, CIT | 2015 | Belgium | Tomato and tomato juice | Methanol 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine | Vortex | SPE cartridge | 1–20 µg kg−1 | 2–50 µg kg−1 | [91] |
4 Alternaria mycotoxins | 2016 | China | Wheat kernel | Acetonitrile–water–methanol (45:45:10, v/v/v) | Sonicating | SPE cartridge | 0.04–1.3 µg kg−1 | 0.1–4.2 | [92] |
AFs, FB1, FB2, DON, OTA, ZEA | 2016 | Thailand | Brown rice | Acetonitrile with 10% (v/v) acetic acid | Vortex | QuEChERS | 1.4–25 µg kg−1 | 4.1–75 µg kg−1 | [93] |
15 mycotoxins | 2016 | Spain | Cow milk | Acetonitrile (2% formic acid) | Shaking | Sodium acetate | 0.02−10.14 ng mL−1 | Nd | [94] |
16 mycotoxins | 2017 | China | Vegetable oils | 85% Acetonitrile | Shaking | QuEChERS | 0.04–2.9 ng g−1 | Nd | [95] |
11 mycotoxins | 2017 | USA | Infant cereals | Acetonitrile/water/formic acid, (80:19.9:0.1, v/v/v) | Shaking | Nd | 0.01−10.0 ng g−1 | 0.05–50 ng g–1 | [84] |
12 Fusarium mycotoxins | 2017 | Germany | Beer | Acetonitrile/water (70:30, v/v) Acetonitrile/water (84:16, v/v) | Vortex | SPE cartridge | 0.05–6.9 µg L−1 | 0.15–20 µg L−1 | [87] |
AFB1 OTA FB1 DON T2 HT-2 ZEA | 2017 | Italy | Cereal-based samples | Acetonitrile–water–acetic acid (79:20:1, v/v/v) | Shaking | Nd | 0.06–0.13 µg kg−1fo r AFB1 0.4–0.8 µg kg−1 for OTA 8−16 µg kg−1 for FB1 20 µg kg−1 for DON 4–8 µg kg−1 for T–2 20 µg kg−1 for HT–2 1.6–3.2 µg kg−1 for ZEA | Nd | [96] |
13 mycotoxins | 2017 | Korea | Cereal grains | Methanol 80%, containing 0.5% acetic acid | Shaking | IAC | 0.1−18.1 ng/g | 0.4–54.8 ng/g | [97] |
20 mycotoxins | 2019 | Korea | Soybean Paste | Methanol–water (60:40, v/v) and PBS | Blending | IAC | 0.06–4.68 µg kg−1 | 0.17−13.24 | [49] |
6 Alternaria toxins | 2019 | China | Grapes | Acetonitrile and dispersive solid phase extraction | Shaking | QuEChERS | 0.03–0.21 µg kg−1 | 0.09–0.48 µg kg−1 | [77] |
AFs, ZEA, α-ZOL | 2019 | Spain | Vegetable oils | Acetonitrile | Shaking | QuEChERS | Nd | 0.5 μg kg−1 for AFs 1 μg kg−1 for ZEA and α-ZOL | [93] |
Mycotoxin | Label Used | Commodity | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Deoxynivalenol (DON) Zearalenone (ZEA) T-2/H-T2-toxin | Epoxy-functionalized silica coated QDs | Barley | 1000 µg/kg 80 µg/kg 80 µg/kg | [106] |
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) Zearalenone (ZEA) Deoxynivalenol (DON) | Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with the conjugates bovine serum albumin (BSA) | Wheat and maize | 0.05 μg/kg 1 μg/kg 3 μg/kg | [107] |
Fumonisin B1 (FB1) Deoxynivalenol (DON) | Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) | Maize | 2.0 ng mL−1 40 ng mL−1 | [108] |
Deoxynivalenol (DON) T-2 toxin (T-2) Zearalenone (ZEN) | Amorphous carbon nanoparticles (ACNPs) | Maize | 20 µg/kg 13 µg/kg 1 µg/kg | [109] |
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) Zearalenone (ZEN) Deoxynivalenol (DON) | CdSe/SiO2 quantum dot microbeads | Feedstuff | 10 pg mL−1 80 pg mL−1 500 pg mL−1 | [110] |
Zearalenone (ZEN) | Antibody-labeled quantum dot sumicro beads | Corn | 3.6 mg mL−1 | [111] |
Fumonisins (FUs) | CdSe/ZnS QD + GNP | Maize | 62.5 μg/kg | [102] |
Mycotoxin | Recognition Element | Transducer/Technique | Food | Detection Limit | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
AFB1 | Organic framework composite | Piezoelectric (QCM) | Peanut, pistachio, rice, and wheat | 2.8 pg mL−1 | [116] |
AFB1 | Antibody | Impedimetric (EIS) | Corn | 0.05 ng mL−1 | [117] |
AFB1 | Antibody | Piezoelectric (EQCM) | Cereal | 8 pg mL−1 | [118] |
AFB1 | Antibody | Piezoelectric (QCM) | Peanut | 0.83 ng kg−1 | [119] |
AFB1 | Antibody | Potentiometric (DPV) | Corn powder | 3.5 pg mL−1 | [120] |
Cyclopiazonic acid | Antibody | Optical (SPR) | Maize and cheese | 0.29 mg mL−1 | [121] |
DON, ZEN, T-2toxin | Antibody | Optical (SPR) | Wheat | 15μg/kg−1 24 μg/kg−1 12 μg/kg−1 | [122] |
HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, AFM1 | Antibody | Amperometric (CV) | Human urine | 0.4 ng mL−1 1 ng mL−1 0.3 ng mL−1 | [113] |
T-2 toxin, T-2 toxin-3-glucoside (T2-G) | Antibody | Optical (iSPR) | Wheat | 1.2 ng mL−1 | [123] |
OTA | Aptamer | Impedimetric (EIS) | Grape and commodities | 0.030 ng mL−1 | [124] |
OTA | Aptamer | SPR | Wine and peanut oil | 0.005 ng mL−1 | [125] |
OTA | Antibody | Piezoelectric (QCM) | Buffer | 17.2 ng mL−1 | [111] |
OTA | Aptamer | Amperometric (CV) | Red wine | 0.23 pg mL−1 | [126] |
OTA | Antibody | Piezoelectric (QCM) | Red wine | 0.16 ng mL−1 | [127] |
OTA | Antibody | Optical (SPR) | Coffee | 3.8 ng mL−1 | [128] |
OTA | Black phosphorene | Potentiometric (DPV) | Grape juice and red wine | 0.18 μg mL−1 | [129] |
OTA | Antibody | Piezoelectric (QCM-D) | Red wine | 0.16 ng mL−1 | [127] |
OTA, AFM1 | Antibody | Potentiometric (CV) | Red wine and milk | 0.15 ng mL−1 3.04 ng mL−1 | [130] |
AFM1 | Antibody | Optical (SPR) | Milk | 18 pg mL−1 | [131] |
PAT | Aptamer | Potentiometric (EIS/DPV) | Juice | 0.27 pg mL−1 | [132] |
PAT | Aptamer | Impedimetric (EIS) | Apple juice | 2.8 ng L−1 | [133] |
ZEN | Aptamer | Amperometric (CV/DPV) | Maize | 0.17 pg mL−1 | [134] |
ZEN | Antibody | Amperometric (CV/DPV) | Corn and corn products | 1.5 pg mL−1 | [135] |
ZEN | Aptamer | Potentiometric (CV/DPV) | Maize | 0.105 pg mL−1 | [136] |
DON, T-2, ZEA, FB1 | Antibody | Optical (iSPR) | Barley | 64 µg kg−1, 26 µg kg−1, 96 µg kg−1, 13 µg kg−1 | [137] |
Biosensors | Advantages | Limitations | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Impedimetric | High sensitivity and selectivity, time-efficient, simple operation, fast response, mobility due to portable instrumentation, miniaturization | Complex construction, expensive labeling markers | [25,124,147] |
Potentiometric | Reduced analysis time, mobility due to portable instrumentation, miniaturization, high sensitivity and selectivity, use without sample treatment | The sensitivity and lifetime are seriously influenced by factors such as temperature, pH, immobilization support, and immunological cross-reaction | [129,147,148] |
Amperometric | Mobility due to portable instrumentation, miniaturization, high sensitivity and selectivity | Regeneration between measurements | [147] |
Surface plasmon resonance | High specificity and sensitivity, small size and cost-efficiency, direct, real-time analysis and detection without label, development of portable devices | The broad practical application is still under development | [25,144] |
Quartz crystal microbalance | Low cost with high sensitivity, selectivity, and possibility of reuse, real-time output, and label- or radiation-free entities, development of portable devices | Requirement of a relatively high background signal relative to the signal-on assay formation | [119,149] |
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Agriopoulou, S.; Stamatelopoulou, E.; Varzakas, T. Advances in Analysis and Detection of Major Mycotoxins in Foods. Foods 2020, 9, 518. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9040518
Agriopoulou S, Stamatelopoulou E, Varzakas T. Advances in Analysis and Detection of Major Mycotoxins in Foods. Foods. 2020; 9(4):518. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9040518
Chicago/Turabian StyleAgriopoulou, Sofia, Eygenia Stamatelopoulou, and Theodoros Varzakas. 2020. "Advances in Analysis and Detection of Major Mycotoxins in Foods" Foods 9, no. 4: 518. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9040518