Chitosan: Sources, Processing and Modification Techniques
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biosynthesis of Chitin
3. Chitin Extraction Techniques
4. Chitin Deacetylation Techniques
5. Structure-Function Properties of Chitosan
5.1. Influence of DDA and Molecular Weight (Mw) on Chitosan Properties and Applications
5.2. Influence of Origin of Chitosan
6. Tailoring Chitosan for Specific Applications
7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Field of Application | Applications | References |
---|---|---|
Biomedical and Pharmaceutical applications | Antioxidant: free radical scavenger/quencher Antimicrobial agent: positively charged chitosan-NH2 groups interact with negatively charged microbial cell membrane creating pores Drug delivery: mucoadhesive properties increase drug permeation of intestinal, nasal, and buccal epithelial cells, Gene therapy: Delivering various genes and siRNA Chitosan based drugs. For example, lowering effect of cholesterol for obesity treatment Regenerative technology/tissue engineering: bone, neural, cornea, cardiac and skin regenerative technology. Provides a three-dimensional tissue growth matrix, activate macrophage activity and stimulate cell proliferation Wound management: homeostatic agent, participate in repair, replacement, activation of humor immunity, complement system, and CD4+ cells, enhances granulation as well as the organization of the repaired tissues. It slowly degrades into N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine that stimulates fibroblast proliferation, regular collagen deposition in addition to stimulating hyaluronic acid synthesis at the wound site. | [11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33] |
Health care products | Cosmetics formulations: Antimicrobial, antifungal, UV absorbing abilities exploited in various cosmetics formulations including in shampoos, rinses, colorants, hair lotions, spray, toothpaste formulations and tonics. Sunscreens, moisturizer foundation, eyeshadow, lipstick, cleansing materials, and bath agent, toothpaste, mouthwashes, and chewing gum as a dental filler. | [34,35,36,37] |
Food Industry | Packaging, edible coatings, body filling, emulsifying agent, natural flavor extender, texture controlling, thickening and stabilizing agent, food preservation (antimicrobial agent), antioxidant agent. Flocculation/Clarification and deacilification of fruits and beverages | [38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45] |
Agriculture | Antimicrobial activities against various plant pathogens. Fruit preservative. controlled delivery of fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides. Increase in the auxin concentration and urea release in the soil, germination capacity, root length and activity, and seedling height | [46,47,48] |
Industrial application | Functional materials: Graphitic carbon nanocapsules/composites, tungsten carbide chitin whiskers, etc. are used in the production of micro-electrochemical systems and 3D networks | [49,50,51] |
Electrolyte: Sulfuric acid and chitosan combination has the ability to discharge high voltage Chitosan provides ionic conductivity and can be used in the production of solid-state batteries Photography: fixing agent for color prints | [52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59] | |
Paper manufacture: Production of filter papers, water-resistant papers, biodegrading packages, water-resistant papers | [59,60,61,62,63] | |
Enzyme carrier: immobilizing enzymes on solid materials | [64,65,66] | |
Construction industry | wood adhesive, fungicide, wood quality enhancer, and preservative | [67,68,69] |
Waste treatment | Flocculating, and negative charge (chelating agent), for dye, heavy metal ions removal and decontamination. Used for various processing plants such as whey, dairy, poultry, and seafood processing plants | [70,71,72,73,74,75] |
Extraction Techniques | Process Conditions | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical methods | Deproteinization conditions: NaOH, KOH, Na2SO3, Na2CO3 Temp: 25–100 °C, 30 min–72 h Demineralization: HCL, HNO3, CH3COOH, HCOOH Temp: 25–100 °C, 30 min–48 h Decolorization: organic solvents such as acetone, ethyl alcohol, diethyl ether Bleaching: KMnO4, NaCIO/H2O2; Temp: 20–60 °C, 25 min–12 h Recovery: precipitation with 5–10%NaOH Deacetylation: NaOH/KOH 30–50% w/v, Temp: 80–150 °C, Time 1–8 h | Short processing time Produces chitin with high DA% Accompanied by deacetylation Process used at industrial scale | Multistep process Deacetylation unavoidable Environmentally unfriendly generate large quantities of waste that cannot be used as human and animal nutrients. Calcium carbonate lost to waste stream | [88,104,105] |
Biological and enzyme based methods | Demineralization: fermentation using lactic acid producing bacteria or lactic acid Deproteinization using enzymes (cellulases, pectinases, chitinases, lipases, papain, hemicellulases, pepsin and lysozyme produces chitooligosaccharides, lysozyme Protease deproteinization and demineralization: in (10% HCl solution at 20 °C for 30 min) at 55 °C and pH of 8.5 Combined deproteinization and demineralization: microorganisms producing proteases or proteases Protease demineralization at 25 °C for 20 min in the presence of lactic acid ratio of 1:1.1 w/w and acetic acid ratio of 1:1.2 w/w) Deproteinized with chitinase at 45 °C and a pH of 6.0 with shaking at 150 rpm Alcalase, esperase and neutrase in deproteinization, followed by deacetylation by alkaline treatment, reached the highest degrees of deacetylation with 61.0–63.7% NaOH for 14.9–16.4 h Combination of species, including Serratia marcescens and L. plantarum, increased deproteinization and demineralization activity Decoloration: acetone or organic solvent, Deacetylation: chitin deacetylase producing by bacteria Lactic acid ratio of 1:1.1 w/w and shells: acetic acid ratio of 1:1.2 w/w) had a maximum demineralization | High quality of final product Sustainable process Environmentally safe; specific, fast in action, reduces the use of energy, chemicals and/or water compared to conventional processes Regular deacetylation and MW | Long processing time (days) Process still under development enzymatic method had a higher degree of acetylation (19.4%) and viscosity than that prepared by chemical method (17.2%). | [106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120] |
Ionic liquids | Complete dissolution followed by the selective precipitation of chitin. Treatment with [C2C1im] [CH3COO] [121]. causes swelling swell Ionic liquids 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate [C2mim] [OAc], 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [C4mim]Cl, [C2mim]Cl, [C2mim] [OAc], and 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate [Amim] [OAc], are effective against chitin from shrimp shells, crab shell waste, and squid pens. Combination of steam explosion and ionic liquid pretreatments for efficient utilization of fungal chitin | Scaling-up the process were successful leading to the establishment of a company 525 Solutions at industrial scale [122]. Dissolution and coagulation of the polymer combined with enzymatic hydrolysis, reduces its crystallinity, making the polymer more accessible to the enzyme | Harsh totally dissolves chitin Toxicity and nonbiodegradability DESs are the ability to perform a three-step process in single step, including demineralization, deproteinization and chitin dissolution | [121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128] |
Deep eutectic solvents | Demineralization, deproteinization and chitin dissolution perform a three-step process in single step Mixture of hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) and a hydrogen bond donor (HBD), choline chloride (ChCl) is commonly used as an HBA, while HBDs include lactic acid, malonic acid, and citric acid 150 °C Incubating different ratio mixtures of DESs (ChCl/citric acid, ChCl/L-lactic acid, and ChCl/malic acid) with chitin sources at temperatures between 50–150 °C for 2–6 h DES plus Microwave: DES ratios of 1:5, 1:10, and 1:20. Next, the mixture was heated under 700 W microwave irradiation (Haier MZC-2070M1) for different durations of time (1, 3, 7, and 9 min) Demineralization was carried out by the malic acids. When choline chloride–malic acid was applied to the shrimp shells, minerals, which are mostly in the form of crystalline CaCO3, were removed by the malic acid, leaving the proteins and chitin. The spacing between the chitin–protein fibers was filled with proteins and minerals; thus, the removal of minerals resulted in a weakening of the linkages within the inner structural organization of the shrimp shells. Since the minerals are removed by the malic acids, in order to conduct demineralization, one component of the DESs used in the chitin extraction should be an acid. | Single step for simultaneous removal of protein and minerals Demineralization, deproteinization and chitin dissolution perform a three-step process in single step Low melting temperature, non-flammability, highly chemical and thermal stability and superior biodegradability. No deacetylation Solvent recycling possible | High solvent viscosity causes difficulty at large scale DESs are a new class of ionic liquid analogues derived from inexpensive commercially available raw materials with a melting point lower than that of each individual component. DESs are biodegradable, cheap and easy to produce | [129,130,131,132,133,134] |
Ultrasound extraction | Ultrasound’s cavitation effect solubilizes protein associated with chitin, dissociates covalent bonds in polymer chains and disperses aggregates Uses high-intensity Ultrasound signals at 750 W power and 20 kHz ± 50 Hz operating frequency to enhance the efficiency of extraction of chitin, | Reduces the extraction time and avoids the requirement of high temperatures. | [135,136,137] | |
Microwave-assisted extraction | Microwave heating involves two main mechanisms: (i) dipolar polarization and (ii) ionic conduction Increasing the microwave irradiation to 130 watts of power for 15 min resulted in high deproteinization (11.46%) and a low ash content (5.4%) at 700 °C for 2 h using 50% of NaOH solution in a power range of 500–650 W resulted in a low DDA, and the deacetylation reaction was more than 80% completed after 10 min. MAE allowed the production of chitosan with medium and high MW (300–360 kDa). | Fast deacetylation of chitosan in 24 min, compared to conventional heating method that requires 6–7 h Upscaling possibility | [138,139,140,141,142] |
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Pellis, A.; Guebitz, G.M.; Nyanhongo, G.S. Chitosan: Sources, Processing and Modification Techniques. Gels 2022, 8, 393. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8070393
Pellis A, Guebitz GM, Nyanhongo GS. Chitosan: Sources, Processing and Modification Techniques. Gels. 2022; 8(7):393. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8070393
Chicago/Turabian StylePellis, Alessandro, Georg M. Guebitz, and Gibson Stephen Nyanhongo. 2022. "Chitosan: Sources, Processing and Modification Techniques" Gels 8, no. 7: 393. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8070393