Ammonia Can Be Currently Considered One of the Best Green Energy Allies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Alternative Fuels
3.1. Hydrogen
3.2. Biodiesel and Alcohols
3.3. Electrification of Transport Sector
3.4. Biogas, Syngas and Syngas Derivates
3.5. Return of Ammonia as Alternative Fuel
4. Ammonia Production
Alternatives Routes for Producing Ammonia
5. Use of Ammonia as Alternative Fuel: Ammonia Combustion
5.1. Gas Turbines
5.2. Spark Ignition Engines
5.3. Compression Ignition Engines
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fuel | Experimental Characteristics | Main Results | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Ammonia/methane mixtures | Measurement of burning velocity and combustion products using an adiabatic flat flame burner. | Addition of ammonia from 0% to 5% by volume in ammonia–methane mixture. The addition of 4% ammonia resulted in a 10% to 20% decrease in burning velocities. Adding ammonia increased NO concentration. | [165] |
Ammonia/methane mixtures | Premixed and nonpremixed counterflow flames: evaluating extinction stretch rate. | Premixed flames under lean conditions were not well predicted for any of the mechanisms studied. However, Okafor’s mechanism accurately predicted the extinction stretch rate of nonpremixed flame. | [162] |
Ammonia/H2 mixtures | Flame stability and pollutant emissions using a porous burner. | Addition of ammonia in the fuel blend reduced the flame stability limits and thermal flame thickness. NO emissions decreased under rich conditions. | [166] |
Ammonia | Burning liquid and gaseous ammonia. | Partial dissociation of ammonia was considered necessary for attaining stable combustion in conventional gas turbine burners. | [128] |
Ammonia/methane; Ammonia/kerosene mixtures | Microgas turbine firing ammonia (50 kW). | NO emission increased with ammonia addition until a certain limit. | [167,168] |
Ammonia/methane mixtures | Use of tangential swirl burner. Atmospheric and medium pressure conditions. | Fully premixed injection strategy is not appropriate for optimized ammonia combustion. High flame instabilities can be produced at medium swirl numbers. | [163] |
Ammonia/methane mixtures | Microgas turbine (50 kW). | The combustion efficiencies of the NH3–air combustors ranged from 89% to 96%, increasing the efficiency with the increase in power. Addition of ammonia to a methane-based mixture leads to an increase in NO emission. | [169] |
Ammonia/methane mixtures | Laboratory-scale swirl burner. | Ammonia addition reduces flame flash back propensity. Good performance in terms of NO emissions is attained only under rich conditions. | [164] |
Ammonia/methane mixtures | T100 microgas turbine (reverse burner). Pilot injector (nonswirl flame). Main injector (premixed flame). | Ammonia addition decreased combustion efficiency. High NOx emissions cancelled any benefit of decarbonization. | [170] |
Ammonia | Simulation study: bluff body stabilized nonpremixed turbulent ammonia (NH3)/air flames using swirling flows. Evaluating the effect of pressure (swirling flames). | Increasing pressure reduces the availability of OH radicals and therefore, limits NO generation. | [171] |
Ammonia | Microgas turbine (100 kW). Load range: 40–100%. | Full replacement of natural gas with ammonia was found to reduce electric efficiency by about 0.5 percentage points. | [172] |
Ammonia | Gas turbine with heat regenerator. | The addition of H2 is effective for low NOx combustion with high combustion efficiency. A system of selective catalytic reduction needs to be coupled to the gas turbine system to comply with pollutant emission limits. | [133] |
Ammonia | Microgas turbine. | Inclined fuel injection and use of swirler. Two-stage (rich-lean) combustion resulted in high efficiency and low NO emission (42 ppmv) NO emission decreased with pressure increase. | [173] |
Ammonia | Small-scale Siemens burner used in the SGT-750 gas turbine. Testing ammonia decomposition degree. | Full and partial ammonia decomposition were tested. When applying partial decomposition, rich conditions were required in the primary zone to avoid the presence of O2 close to the burner (minimum NOx obtained at φ of 1.1). Increase in pressure reduced NOx formation. When total ammonia decomposition was attained, low NOx levels were measured, but in this case, pressure increase favored NOx emissions. | [174] |
Fuel | Experimental Characteristics | Main Results | References |
---|---|---|---|
Ammonia: Storage using metal complex and partial ammonia reforming for H2 production | CFR-engine 1. Compression ratio: 6.23–13.58. Ammonia/H2 5–100% vol. | Best performance at a fuel mixture of 10 vol.% H2 with respect to efficiency and power. | [206] |
Ammonia–H2 mixture | 4-cylinder 4-stroke SI engine, retrofitted to a single-cylinder by fueling only one cylinder (volume displacement: 399.5 cm3). Compression ratio: 10.5:1 1500 rpm. | %H2 addition from 0 to 60%. Stable operation was achieved for NH3/air stoichiometric condition (0.1–0.12 intake pressure), needing a small amount of H2 to ensure ignitability and stability. Only mixtures with high H2 fraction were suitable for lean operation where efficiency was found to be improved. Mitigation strategies for both NH3 and NOx are required if ammonia is to be considered an acceptable fuel. | [189] |
Ammonia–H2 mixture | 4-cylinder 4-stroke Gasoline Direct Injection-SI EP6 PSA engine. Engine modified to become indirect injection, single cylinder. | 10% H2 addition was required for operation. The highest levels of NO and N2O emissions were found to be on the lean side. NH3 emissions were present under rich conditions. EGR 2 reduces NOx. | [203] |
Ammonia–H2 mixture | 2.5 L supercharged LPG 3 engine with direct-fuel injection (fuel injection pressures up to 15 MPa). Compression ratio of 10.5. | Stable combustion is impossible under low-load or low-speed operating conditions due to the cooling of the mixture by latent heat and slow combustion. 10% H2 addition improved performance. However, NOx emissions increased as torque increased with a peak at 200 Nm, whereas ammonia showed minimum values at 160 Nm. | [188] |
Ammonia–H2 mixture | Port fuel injection (PFI) turbo-charged spark-ignition engine, 1.37 L 4-cylinder with compression ratio of 9.8. | 15% H2 (vol./vol.). The engine operated properly between 1500 and 3000 rpm but could not reach 6000 rpm. Maximum engine torque (about 240 Nm) was delivered at 1500 rpm. | [194] |
Ammonia–H2 mixture | Single-cylinder internal combustion engine with a variable compression ratio UIT-85, volume displacement: 652.57 cm3. Compression ratio: 8:1 and 10:1. | Increasing hydrogen energy content up to 12% in the fuel mixture eliminates ignition instability. | [190] |
Ammonia–methane mixture | 11 L 6-cylinder heavy-duty turbocharged spark-ignited engine, originally used in city buses using compressed natural gas (CNG) as fuel. | Ammonia addition caused a moderate deterioration in the generation of brake work compared with the case of pure natural gas. Combustion efficiency showed a steep deterioration with the increase in ammonia in the fuel mixture at a lambda of 1.5 because the laminar flame speed is extremely slow at this condition, and the flame temperature is also extremely low; thus, quenching will occur earlier. | [205] |
Ammonia–DME mixture | Single-cylinder spark-ignition research engine with a compression ratio of 10 and a constant rotational speed of 600 rpm. | DME was added as a component with higher reactivity to attain stable performance, reducing ignition delay time and combustion duration. | [204] |
Ammonia–gasoline mixture | CFR engine: compression ratio of 10:1 and constant speed of 1800 rpm. | The brake-specific energy consumption (BSEC) with gasoline–ammonia was very similar to that with gasoline alone. | [207] |
Ammonia–gasoline (E10) mixture | Externally boosted SI research engine (single cylinder) derivative of the MAHLE Powertrain “DI3” demonstrator engine. Volume displacement: 400 cm3. Maximum speed: 6000 rpm. Compression ratio: 11.33 and 12.39. φ: 1. | Increasing the compression ratio from 11.2 to 12.4 allowed the engine to operate with neat ammonia once a warmed-up state was reached. Under all conditions, the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine was either equivalent to or slightly higher than that obtained using gasoline-only due to the favorable antiknock rating of NH3 (40% efficiency at 1800 rpm/16 bar IMEPn 4, a 14% improvement over pure E10). | [208] |
Water ammonia solution (WAS)–gasoline mixture | Single cylinder four-stroke air cooled engine (volume displacement: 212 cm3). Maximum output power of 2.5 kW at 3000 rpm. Compression ratio: 8.5:1. | WAS at 25% ammonia. Mixtures of WAS–gasoline were tested at a range of 5 to 25%. The engine’s thermal efficiency was improved but emissions performance (CO, NOx, HC 5) was not. | [209] |
Fuel | Experimental Characteristics | Main Results | References |
---|---|---|---|
Ammonia–diesel mixture | John Deere (Model 4045) multicylinder turbocharged diesel engine. Displacement volume: 4.5 L. Compression ratio: 17.0:1. Engine speed: 1000 rpm. Performance tested under constant engine power and variable engine power operation. | NOx emissions are reduced if ammonia accounts for less than 40% of the total fuel energy. CO and HC 1 emissions were generally higher with the dual-fuel configuration than those of single diesel fuel use for the same power output. NH3 emission reached 1000–3000 ppmv. Under variable power operation, fuel efficiency was poor. | [218] |
Ammonia–diesel mixture | Lifan engine 4 stroke single cylinder. Compression ratio: 16.5:1. Operating conditions: 1200 rpm and full load. | A maximum of 84.2% of input energy can be provided by ammonia. Ammonia reduced CO2 emissions but also produced N2O, which has a 298 times greater GHG 2 effect. | [224] |
Ammonia–biodiesel mixture | Lifan engine 4 stroke single cylinder. Compression ratio: 16.5:1. Operating conditions: 1500 rpm. | Ammonia-/biodiesel-fueled engine had lower BTE 3 than pure biodiesel at the same operating point. Increasing ammonia in the mixture changes combustion from diffusion to premixed mode. | [225] |
Ammonia–DME mixture | Yanmar L70 V single-cylinder, direct-injection diesel engine. Natural aspiration. Displacement volume: 320 cm3. Compression ratio: 20.0:1.0. Engine rated speed: 3600 rpm. | The operating range of the engine is reduced when using ammonia. Adding ammonia to the mixture decreases combustion temperature, producing higher CO and HC emissions but much lower soot emissions. NOx emissions increased due to fuel-bound nitrogen. Increasing injection pressure allows the use of mixtures with higher ammonia content. | [226] |
Ammonia–DME mixture | Modified Caterpillar 3401 heavy-duty, single-cylinder, four-stroke. Compression ratio: 16.25:1. Displacement volume: 2.44 L. Engine speed: 910 rpm. | The authors proposed split diesel injection as a strategy for improving combustion performance. Lower GHG emissions were achieved than with diesel-only combustion mode. | [220] |
Aqueous solution of ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) solution (28% ammonia)–diesel | Ford Duratorq CD132 130 PS 4-stroke single cylinder. Displacement volume: 499.56 cm3. | Aqueous ammonia contributed a maximum of 25% of the total engine load. Increasing this proportion caused higher CO emissions and cycle-to-cycle variability. | [227] |
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González, R.; Gómez, X. Ammonia Can Be Currently Considered One of the Best Green Energy Allies. Sustain. Chem. 2024, 5, 163-195. https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem5020012
González R, Gómez X. Ammonia Can Be Currently Considered One of the Best Green Energy Allies. Sustainable Chemistry. 2024; 5(2):163-195. https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem5020012
Chicago/Turabian StyleGonzález, Rubén, and **omar Gómez. 2024. "Ammonia Can Be Currently Considered One of the Best Green Energy Allies" Sustainable Chemistry 5, no. 2: 163-195. https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem5020012