Health and Comorbidities in Minority Ethnic Adults Living with Visual Impairment in the UK
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Measures
2.2. Sample
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Eye Health
3.2.1. Eye Conditions
3.2.2. Vision Difficulties
3.2.3. V.I. Severity and Changes in Vision
3.3. General Health
3.4. Comorbidities
3.4.1. Physical Health Conditions
3.4.2. Neurodevelopmental and Mental Health Conditions
3.4.3. Comorbid Impairments
3.5. Physical Exercise
4. Discussion
4.1. Eye Conditions and Vision Difficulties
4.2. Comorbidities
4.3. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | M (SD) | 40.2 (14.6) | 39.2 (14.7) | U = 500.5, p = n.s. | 40.8 (15.6) | 41.1 (15.6) | U = 2919.5, p = n.s. |
18–25 | 13.0 (6) | 27.3 (6) | 16.9 (13) | 16.9 (13) | |||
26–35 | 39.1 (18) | 9.1 (2) | 28.6 (22) | 27.3(21) | |||
36–45 | 13.0 (6) | 31.8 (7) | 19.5 (15) | 20.8 (16) | |||
46–55 | 19.6 (9) | 18.2 (4) | 18.2 (14) | 18.2 (14) | |||
56–65 | 6.5 (30) | 9.1 (2) | 7.8 (6) | 7.8 (6) | |||
66–75 | 8.7 (4) | 4.5 (1) | 7.8 (6) | 6.5 (5) | |||
76–85 | - | - | 1.3 (1) | 2.6 (2) | |||
Gender | Female | 50.0 (23) | 59.1 (13) | Χ2 (1, 68) = 0.49, p = n.s. | 51.9 (40) | 51.9 (40) | Χ2 (1, 154) = 0.00, p = n.s. |
Male | 50.0 (23) | 40.9 (9) | 48.1 (37) | 48.1 (37) | |||
Region | London | 41.3 (19) | 59.1 (13) | p = n.s. | 44.2 (34) | 31.2 (24) | p = n.s. |
South-East | 4.3 (2) | 9.1 (2) | 6.5 (5) | 2.6 (2) | |||
South-West | 6.5 (3) | - | 5.2 (4) | 3.9 (3) | |||
East of England | 6.5 (3) | 4.5 (1) | 5.2 (4) | 2.6 (2) | |||
East Midlands | 2.2 (1) | 4.5 (1) | 3.9 (3) | 5.2 (4) | |||
West Midlands | 6.5 (3) | - | 5.2 (4) | 2.6 (2) | |||
North-East | - | - | - | 5.2 (4) | |||
North-West | 17.4 (8) | 9.1 (2) | 13.0 (10) | 23.4 (18) | |||
Yorkshire and the Humber | 4.3 (2) | 4.5 (1) | 3.9 (3) | 3.9 (3) | |||
Scotland | 4.3 (2) | 9.1 (2) | 7.8 (6) | 9.1 (7) | |||
Wales | 4.3 (2) | - | 3.9 (3) | 7.8 (6) | |||
Northern Ireland | 2.2 (1) | - | 1.3 (1) | 2.6 (2) | |||
Setting | City/big town | 67.4 (31) | 77.3 (17) | p = n.s. | 67.5 (52) | 55.8 (43) | Χ2 (2, 154) = 4.68, p = n.s. |
Small town | 26.1 (12) | 9.1 (2) | 22.1 (17) | 37.7 (29) | |||
Rural area | 6.5 (3) | 13.6 (3) | 10.4 (8) | 6.5 (5) |
Eye Conditions | Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | Fisher’s Exact | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) | Χ2 (1, N = 154) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Any other condition(s) | 17.4 (8) | 36.4 (8) | p = n.s. | 26.0 (20) | 33.8 (26) | 1.12, p = n.s. |
Keratoconus/corneal dystrophy | 19.6 (9) | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 14.3 (11) | 3.9 (3) | 5.03, p = 0.025 * |
Optic nerve condition (e.g., Leber’s amaurosis, atrophy, neuritis) | 8.7 (4) | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 11.7 (9) | 13.0 (10) | 0.06, p = n.s. |
Dry AMD | 15.2 (7) | - | p = n.s. | 9.1 (7) | 6.5 (5) | 0.36, p = n.s. |
Wet AMD | - | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 1.3 (1) | 2.6 (2) | p = n.s. |
AMD/Macular degeneration (unknown) | 2.2 (1) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 2.6 (2) | 2.6 (2) | p = n.s. |
Macular degeneration/dystrophy (not age-related) | 8.7 (4) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 6.5 (5) | 5.2 (4) | p = n.s. |
Cataract (age-related) | 4.3 (2) | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 5.2 (4) | 3.9 (3) | p = n.s. |
Cataract (congenital) | 6.5 (3) | 13.6 (3) | p = n.s. | 7.8 (6) | 9.1 (7) | 0.08, p = n.s. |
Glaucoma | 6.5 (3) | 13.6 (3) | p = n.s. | 9.1 (7) | 9.1 (7) | 0.00, p = n.s. |
Nystagmus | 6.5 (3) | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 7.8 (6) | 13.0 (10) | 1.12, p = n.s. |
V.I. due to a stroke, brain tumour, or brain damage | 8.7 (4) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 7.8 (6) | 13.0 (10) | 1.12, p = n.s. |
Retinitis pigmentosa | 10.9 (5) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 7.8 (6) | 6.5 (5) | 0.10, p = n.s. |
Detached retina | 2.2 (1) | 13.6 (3) | p = n.s. | 6.5 (5) | 5.2 (4) | p = n.s. |
Diabetic eye condition (e.g., retinopathy, maculopathy) | 6.5 (3) | 18.2 (4) | p = n.s. | 9.1 (7) | 2.6 (2) | p = n.s. |
Retinal disease (inherited disease not retinitis pigmentosa) | 4.3 (2) | 13.6 (3) | p = n.s. | 6.5 (5) | 2.6 (2) | p = n.s. |
Retinopathy of prematurity | - | - | - | - | 3.9 (3) | p = n.s. |
Cortical V.I. | 4.3 (2) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 3.9 (3) | 2.6 (2) | p = n.s. |
Uveitis | - | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 2.6 (2) | 5.2 (4) | p = n.s. |
An injury or an accident | 2.2 (1) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 2.6 (2) | 10.4 (8) | p = n.s. |
Don’t know | 13.0 (6) | - | p = n.s. | 11.7 (9) | 7.8 (6) | 0.66, p = n.s. |
None | - | - | - | - | 1.3 (1) | - |
Vision Difficulties | Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | X2 (1, N = 68) | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) | Χ2 (1, N = 154) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No vision at all | 8.7 (4) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 10.4 (8) | 7.8 (6) | 0.31, p = n.s. |
Blurred vision | 54.3 (25) | 50.0 (11) | 0.11, p = n.s. | 53.2 (41) | 42.9 (33) | 1.66, p = n.s. |
Problems seeing in low lights/night blindness | 45.7 (21) | 36.4 (8) | 0.52, p = n.s. | 39.0 (30) | 41.6 (32) | 0.11, p = n.s. |
Eye fatigue/eye strain | 34.8 (16) | 36.4 (8) | 0.02, p = n.s. | 36.4 (28) | 29.9 (23) | 0.73, p = n.s. |
Light sensitivity (unable to cope with normal room light levels) | 39.1 (18) | 31.8 (7) | 0.34, p = n.s. | 33.8 (26) | 23.4 (18) | 2.04, p = n.s. |
Peripheral field loss/tunnel vision | 30.4 (14) | 31.8 (7) | 0.01, p = n.s. | 29.9 (23) | 24.7 (19) | 0.52, p = n.s. |
Difficulty adapting to changes in light conditions | 32.6 (15) | 31.8 (7) | 0.00, p = n.s. | 29.9 (23) | 31.2 (24) | 0.03, p = n.s. |
Floaters | 21.7 (10) | 18.2 (4) | p = n.s. | 20.8 (16) | 28.6 (22) | 1.26, p = n.s. |
Redness, swelling, or tearing | 23.9 (11) | 18.2 (4) | p = n.s. | 20.8 (16) | 11.7 (9) | 2.34, p = n.s. |
Difficulty processing vision | 19.6 (9) | 18.2 (4) | p = n.s. | 19.5 (15) | 27.3 (21) | 1.31, p = 0.25 * |
Central field loss/distortion or patches missing in the middle | 21.7 (10) | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 15.6 (12) | 18.2 (14) | 0.19, p = n.s. |
Flashing lights | 13.0 (6) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 10.4 (8) | 11.7 (9) | 0.07, p = n.s. |
Halos around lights | 8.7 (4) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 9.1 (7) | 16.9 (13) | 2.07, p = n.s. |
Any other issues | 4.3 (2) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 3.9 (3) | 9.1 (7) | 1.71, p = n.s. |
Half field loss in both eyes (hemianopia) | 4.3 (2) | - | p = n.s. | 2.6 (2) | 7.8 (6) | p = n.s. |
CBS/Hallucinations | - | - | - | 1.3 (1) | 6.5 (5) | p = n.s. |
Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
V.I. severity | U = 552.5, p = n.s. | U = 2951, p = n.s. | |||
Severe | 41.3 (19) | 31.8 (7) | 39.0 (30) | 44.2 (34) | |
Moderate | 34.8 (16) | 40.9 (9) | 35.1 (27) | 23.4 (18) | |
Mild | 23.9 (11) | 27.3 (6) | 26.0 (20) | 31.2 (24) | |
Could not be classified | - | - | - | 1.3 (1) | |
Vision changes | Fisher’s exact p = n.s. | Fisher’s exact p = n.s. | |||
Improved | 4.3 (2) | 9.1 (2) | 5.2 (4) | 5.2 (4) | |
Deteriorated | 50.0 (23) | 36.4 (8) | 46.8 (36) | 50.6 (39) | |
Stayed the same | 45.7 (21) | 54.5 (12) | 48.1 (37) | 41.6 (32) | |
Other | - | - | - | 2.6 (2) |
Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
No comorbid conditions | 30.4 (14) | 9.1 (2) | 22.1 (17) | 23.4 (18) |
Has any comorbid conditions | 69.6 (32) | 90.9 (20) | 77.9 (60) | 76.6 (59) |
From one comorbidity domain | 23.9 (11) | 36.4 (8) | 26.0 (20) | 32.5 (25) |
From two comorbidity domains | 15.2 (7) | 36.4 (8) | 24.7 (19) | 27.3 (21) |
From three comorbidity domains | 23.9 (11) | 18.2 (4) | 23.4 (18) | 14.3 (11) |
From four comorbidity domains | 6.5 (3) | - | 3.9 (3) | 2.6 (2) |
Has any physical comorbidities | 50.0 (23) | 72.7 (16) | 61.0 (47) | 51.9 (40) |
Has any neurodevelopmental comorbidities | 19.6 (9) | 9.1 (2) | 14.3 (11) | 14.3 (11) |
Has any mental health comorbidities | 37.0 (17) | 27.3 (6) | 35.1 (27) | 35.1 (27) |
Has comorbid impairments | 47.8 (22) | 54.5 (12) | 51.9 (40) | 41.6 (32) |
Physical Health Conditions | Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | Fisher’s Exact | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) | Χ2 (1, N = 154) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No health conditions | 50.0 (23) | 27.3 (6) | p = n.s. | 39.0 (30) | 48.1 (37) | 1.29, p = n.s. |
Diabetes | 13.0 (6) | 27.3 (6) | p = n.s. | 16.9 (13) | 6.5 (5) | 4.03, p = 0.045 * |
Asthma or allergies | 8.7 (4) | 18.2 (4) | p = n.s. | 13.0 (10) | 18.2 (14) | 0.79, p = n.s. |
Arthritis | 13.0 (6) | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 10.4 (8) | 10.4 (8) | 0.00, p = n.s. |
High blood pressure | 8.7 (4) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 7.8 (6) | 7.8 (6) | 0.00, p = n.s. |
Auto-immune conditions | 2.2 (1) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 6.5 (5) | 3.9 (3) | p = n.s. |
Migraines | - | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 3.9 (3) | 3.9 (3) | p = n.s. |
Registered disabilities (other than V.I.) | - | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 2.6 (2) | 1.3 (1) | p = n.s. |
Epilepsy | 2.2 (1) | - | p = n.s. | 2.6 (2) | 2.6 (2) | p = n.s. |
Kidney problem or disease | - | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 1.3 (1) | 2.6 (2) | p = n.s. |
Multiple Sclerosis | - | - | - | 1.3 (1) | - | p = n.s. |
Heart condition or disease | 2.2 (1) | - | p = n.s. | 1.3 (1) | 5.2 (4) | p = n.s. |
Stroke | - | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 1.3 (1) | - | p = n.s. |
Cancer | - | - | - | - | 1.3 (1) | p = n.s. |
Alzheimer’s/dementia | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Parkinson’s disease | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Other | 19.6 (9) | 31.8 (7) | p = n.s. | 27.3 (21) | 19.5 (15) | 1.31, p = n.s. |
Neurodevelopmental Conditions | Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | Fisher’s Exact | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) | Fisher’s Exact |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No conditions | 80.4 (37) | 90.9 (20) | p = n.s. | 85.7 (66) | 85.7 (66) | p = n.s. |
Other | 4.3 (2) | 9.1 (2) | p = n.s. | 5.2 (4) | - | p = n.s. |
Dyslexia | 6.5 (3) | - | p = n.s. | 3.9 (3) | 7.8 (6) | p = n.s. |
Down’s Syndrome | 2.2 (1) | - | p = n.s. | 1.3 (1) | - | p = n.s. |
Autism | 2.2 (1) | - | p = n.s. | 1.3 (1) | 3.9 (3) | p = n.s. |
ADHD | 2.2 (1) | - | p = n.s. | 1.3 (1) | 1.3 (1) | p = n.s. |
Mental Health Conditions | X2 (1, N = 68) | X2 (1, N = 154) | ||||
Recently experienced emotional, psychological, or mental ill-health conditions | 37.0 (17) | 27.3 (6) | 0.62, p = n.s. | 35.1 (27) | 35.1 (27) | 0.00, p = n.s. |
Comorbid Impairments | Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | Fisher’s Exact | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) | Χ2 (1, N = 154) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No difficulties | 52.2 (24) | 45.5 (10) | p = n.s. | 48.1 (37) | 58.4 (45) | 1.67, p = n.s. |
Mobility difficulties (e.g., moving about, climbing stairs, or use wheelchairs or crutches to help you be mobile) | 28.3 (13) | 45.5 (10) | p = n.s. | 36.4 (28) | 19.5 (15) | 5.45, p = 0.020 * |
Difficulty remembering things or periods of confusion | 26.1 (12) | 4.5 (1) | p = 0.047 * | 22.1 (17) | 18.2 (14) | 0.36, p = n.s. |
Dexterity difficulties (e.g., gras** or holding objects) | 15.2 (7) | 4.5 (1) | p = n.s. | 15.6 (12) | 16.9 (13) | 0.05, p = n.s. |
Difficulty hearing or use a hearing aid | 15.2 (7) | 13.6 (3) | p = n.s. | 14.3 (11) | 13.0 (10) | 0.06, p = n.s. |
Difficulty speaking or making yourself understood | 8.7 (4) | - | p = n.s. | 6.5 (5) | 2.6 (2) | p = n.s. |
Physical Exercise | Asian (n = 46) % (n) | Black (n = 22) % (n) | MEC (n = 77) % (n) | White (n = 77) % (n) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fisher’s exact p = n.s. | Fisher’s exact p = n.s. | |||
Able to take part as much as I’d like | 34.8 (16) | 50.0 (11) | 36.4 (28) | 50.6 (39) |
Able to take part but not as much as I’d like | 37.0 (17) | 31.8 (7) | 36.4 (28) | 33.8 (26) |
Not able to take part but would like to | 26.1 (12) | 18.2 (4) | 24.7 (19) | 11.7 (9) |
Don’t want to take part | 2.2 (1) | - | 2.6 (2) | 3.9 (3) |
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Hussain, S.F.; Heinze, N.; Gomes, R.S.M. Health and Comorbidities in Minority Ethnic Adults Living with Visual Impairment in the UK. Disabilities 2024, 4, 79-100. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4010006
Hussain SF, Heinze N, Gomes RSM. Health and Comorbidities in Minority Ethnic Adults Living with Visual Impairment in the UK. Disabilities. 2024; 4(1):79-100. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4010006
Chicago/Turabian StyleHussain, Syeda F., Nikki Heinze, and Renata S. M. Gomes. 2024. "Health and Comorbidities in Minority Ethnic Adults Living with Visual Impairment in the UK" Disabilities 4, no. 1: 79-100. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4010006