Plant-Derived Metal Nanoparticles (PDMNPs): Synthesis, Characterization, and Oxidative Stress-Mediated Therapeutic Actions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of Nanoparticles
2.1. History and Development of Nanoparticles
2.2. Methodology
3. Synthesis of PDMNPs
3.1. General Synthesis
3.2. Plant Mediated Synthesis
4. Factors Affecting the Synthesis of PDMNPs
4.1. Effect of Extract Concentration
4.2. Effect of Time
4.3. Effect of pH
4.4. Effect of Temperature
4.5. Effect of Types of Bioactive Compounds
4.6. Effect of Agitation
5. Structural Characterization of PDMNPs
5.1. Ultra Violet-Visible Spectroscopy
5.2. X-ray Crystallography
5.3. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
5.4. Microscopic Techniques
5.5. Powder XRD Technique
5.6. Light Scattering Methods and Zeta-Potential (ζ)
Name of Technique | Source of Detection | Study |
---|---|---|
UV-Visible absorption spectroscopy | Monochromatic wavelength | For identifying, characterizing, and studying nanomaterials in terms of size, shape, concentration, and agglomeration state |
Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy | Infrared radiations | Identifying the surface adsorption of functional groups on nanoparticles |
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) | Electron beam | Characterization of size (below 1.0 nm) and shape of nanoparticles |
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) | Electron beam | Measurement of nanoparticle’s size, distribution, and morphology |
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) | Electron beam from the laser light | Evaluation of size and shape of nanoparticles in three dimensions. It also determines the surface morphology and elemental composition in a very quick time |
Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) | Scattered light from a laser | Studying the aggregation and colloidal state of nanoparticles in suspension |
Zeta Potential Measurement | Free ions | Studying the physical stability in terms of surface charge of colloidal nanoparticles |
6. Assessment of Oxidative Stress-Mediated Therapeutic Actions
6.1. Antioxidant Action
6.2. Antimicrobial Action
6.3. Anticancer Action
Plant Name (Part Used) | Extract | Nanoparticles | Findings | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Quercus robur, Eucalyptus globulus, Camellia sinensis, Thimus mastichina, Thimus vulgaris, Thuja occidentalis, Mentha sp., Rosmarinus officinalis, Laurus nobilis, Citrus limon (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag, Cu, Fe, Pd, Ni, Shape: Hexagonal, spherical, triangular, and rod shaped Size: 50 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH, FRAP, FC, and cyclic voltammetry methods | [202] |
Camellia sinensis, Ilex paraguariensis, Salvia officinalis, Tilia cordata, Levisticum officinale, Aegopodium podagraria, Urtica dioica, Capsicum baccatum, Viscum album (whole plants) | Methanol | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical, and rod-shaped Size: 100–200 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by DPPH, CUPRAC, and SNPAC assays | [203] |
Phoenix Dactylifera (leaves) | Ethanol/water mixture (70%/30%) | Metal: Cu Shape: spherical and rhombohedral Size: 25–100 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH, phosphomolybdenum, and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays with IC50 of 0.39 mg/mL | [204] |
Rosa floribunda charisma (flowers) | Phenyl ethyl alcohol | Metal: Mg Shape: Polyhedral Size: 35.25–55.14 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using inhibition of superoxide (IC50 26.2 µg/mL), nitric oxide (IC50 52.9 µg/mL), hydroxyl radical (IC50 31.9 µg/mL), and xanthine oxidase (IC50 15.9 µg/mL) assays Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus epidermidis (MIC of 15.63), Staphylococcus pyogenes (MIC of 7.81), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC of 31.25) µg/mL as well as with minimum biofilm inhibitory concentrations 1.95, 1.95, 7.81 µg/mL, respectively | [205] |
Cestrum nocturnum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by DPPH (29.55% inhibition) hydrogen peroxide (45.41% inhibition), hydroxyl radical (20% inhibition), and superoxide radical scavenging (8% inhibition) methods Antibacterial activity: Against Citrobacter, Escherichia faecalis, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, and Vibrio cholera with MIC values of 16, 4, 16, 8, 8, and 16 μg/mL | [206] |
Plantago lanceolate (whole) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 30 ± 4 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with IC50 369.5 ± 13.42 µg/mL Antibacterial activity: Against Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli with IC50 values 08.02 ± 0.68, 55.78 ± 1.01, 12.34 ± 1.35 and 11.68 ± 1.42 µg/mL, respectively | [207] |
Flemingia wightiana (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20–40 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH and H2O2 scavenging activity with IC50 values of 71.96 and 80.59 µg/mL respectively Anticancer activity: Against SKOV3 (inhibition 83.2%) and COLO205 (inhibition 75.9%) cancer cells | [208] |
Artemisia absinthium, Humulus lupulus, and Thymus vulgaris (leaves) | Ethanol | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical and wedge Size: 42–48 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH with 0.14 ± 0.00 inhibition for A. absinthium/AgNPs, 0.11 ± 0.00 inhibition for H. lupulus/AgNPs, and 0.14 ± 0.00 mmol/g for T. vulgaris/AgNPs while 0.55 ± 0.05; 0.86 ± 0.05 and 0.55 ± 0.05 mmol/g inhibitions in ABTS method for A. absinthium/AgNPs, H. lupulus/AgNPs, and T. vulgaris/AgNPs samples. Antibacterial activity: Evaluated with inhibition zones in the range 9.0 ± 0.1 to 20.4 ± 0.3 mm for all the samples | [209] |
Sesamum indicum (oil cake) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 6.6–14.8 nm | Anticancer activity: Against MCF-7 cell lines with 72.02% cell viability, 15.18% late apoptosis, and 1.20% necrosis at 2.5 μg/mL concentration of AgNPs whereas against with 56.97% cell viability, 31.19% late apoptosis, and 4.85% necrosis at 7.5 μg/mL concentration of AgNPs Antibacterial activity: With minimum inhibitory concentration (0.5 μg/mL) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli. | [210] |
Dodonaea viscosa (leaves) | Aqueous, acetone, methanol, acetonitrile | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical and dendritic Size: 15, 18, 12, and 20 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Streptococcus pyogenes with a zone of inhibition (20, 16, 13, 18 mm) for AgNPs synthesized by methanol, acetone, acetonitrile, and water extracts nanoparticles, respectively Anticancer activity: Against A549 NSCLC cell lines with IC50 values 14, 3, 80, and 4 μg/mL for methanol, acetone, acetonitrile, and water extract derived nanoparticles, respectively. | [211] |
Mangifera indica (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: rod-shaped Size: 500–900 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH with inhibition 83.7 ± 0.2%, 89.8 ± 0.3%, and 96.4 ± 0.3% for 0.1 w/v, 1 w/v, and 10% w/v concentration, respectively. Anticancer activity: Against MCF-7 and HCT-116 cell lines with cell growth 49.1 ± 0.5% and 58.2 ± 0.2%, respectively, at 10% w/v | [212] |
Impatiens balsamina and Lantana camara (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: <24 nm | Antioxidant activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli with average ZOI values 13.8 and 8.9 mm for Impatiens balsamina and 15.8 and 15.4 mm Lantana camara, respectively | [213] |
Jasminum auriculatum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Au Shape: spherical Size: 8–37 nm | Anticancer activity: Against cervical cancer Antibacterial activity: Against Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae Antifungal activity: Against Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Lecanicillium lecanii, and Trichoderma viride | [214] |
Alpinia nigra (fruits) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 6 nm | Anticancer activity: Against human cervical cancer cell line (HeLa) with the IC50 value of 104 μg/mL Antibacterial activity: Against Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae with ZOI values of 20, 9, 12, and 7 mm, respectively Antifungal activity: Candida Albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Lecanicillium lecanii, and Trichoderma viride with ZOI values of 4, 4, 5, and 5 mm, respectively | [215] |
Lycium chinense (fruits) | Aqueous | Metal: Au, Ag Shape: spherical Size: 536 and 480 nm | Anticancer activity: Aignificant cytotoxicity to the human breast cancer MCF7 cell line for AgNPs and whereas no toxicity to non-diseased RAW264.7 (murine macrophage) cells, whereas no toxicity on both cell lines for AuNPs | [216] |
Garcinia Indica (fruit) | Aqueous | Metal: Au, Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20–30 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by DPPH assay with 32–72% inhibition | [217] |
Ziziphora clinopodioides (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20–45 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli with MIC values at 200 and 400 ppm concentrations, respectively | [218] |
Calophyllum tomentosum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: NA | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH (90% inhibition), H2O2 scavenging (83.94%), nitric oxide scavenging power (78.4%), reducing power assays Antibacterial activity: Against Klebsiella aerogenes, Staphylococcus, auereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli with a maximum inhibition at 100 µg/mL concentration | [219] |
Pistacia atlantica (leaves and fruit) | Aqueous | Metal: Au Shape: spherical Size: 40–50 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay Anticancer activity: Against cervical cancer with a maximum inhibition of cells at 200 μg/mL concentration Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis with MIC values 7.81, 3.9, 7.81, and 3.25 μg/mL | [220] |
Allium rotundum L., Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. and Ferulago angulate Boiss. (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20.5 nm | Antimicrobial activity: Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus | [221] |
Carya illinoinensis (leaves) | Methanol | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Saphylococcus aureus (MIC: 128), Listeria monocytogenes (MIC: 64), Escherichia coli (MIC: 16), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC: 32) | [222] |
Tasmannia lanceolata and Backhousia citriodora (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Au Shape: spherical Size: 7.10 ± 0.66 nm | Anticancer activity: Against liver cancer (HepG2), melanoma cancer (MM418C1), and breast cancer (MCF-7) cell lines. AuNPs showed 20% better inhibition of these cancer cell lines than plant extracts | [223] |
Ougeinia oojeinensis (leaves) | Ethanol | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 5–100 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by DPPH assay with IC50 value 21.95 ± 1.02 Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus with ZOI values 14.58 ± 0.79, 16.55 ± 0.37, 16.25 ± 0.63, and 23.83 ± 0.44 mm, respectively. Antifungal activity: Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus oryzae, Mucor, azygosporus, and Penicillum chrysogenum with a zone of inhibition 20.17 ± 0.6, 16.50 ± 0.29, 20.25 ± 0.38, 21.82 ± 0.43 mm, respectively | [224] |
Holoptelea integrifolia (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 32–38 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH, metal chelating, and nitric oxide assay with inhibition 51.49 ± 3.33, 41.18 ± 2.27, and 74.59 ± 3.08%, respectively Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium with MIC value ranges from 75 to 150 μg | [225] |
Aesculus hippocastanum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 50 ± 5 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH and superoxide radical scavenging assays with 54.72% and 62.9% inhibition at the highest concentration of 100 ppm. Antibacterial activity: Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium renale, Micrococcus luteus, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus cereus with ZOI values as 20.0, 8.0, 8.0, 17.5 ± 2.12, 13 ± 0.00, 13 ± 0.00, 15 ± 2.64, 12 ± 0.00, 17 ± 0.00, 10.5 ± 1.41, 10.5 ± 1.41 mm diameter, respectively | [226] |
Punica granatum L. (seeds) | Oil | Metal: Au Shape: elongated, and rectangular Size: 70 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH scavenging (23.6 ± 1.5 to 62.5 ± 1.8%) and H2O2 scavenging (21.6 ± 1.3 to 62.8 ± 1.8%) at different concentrations Anticancer activity: Against lung and colon cancer with the cell viability ranging from 80.3 to 25% and 83.3 to 28.4.2%, respectively | [227] |
Alternanthera bettzickiana (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Au Shape: spherical Size: 80–120 nm | Antibacterial activity: Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Micrococcus luteus, and Enterobacter aerogens Anticancer activity: Against human lung cancer | [228] |
Green tea and black tea (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Au, Ag Shape: spherical Size: ∼10 nm for AuNPs, and ∼30 nm for AgNPs | Antibacterial activity: Against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Micrococcus luteus, and Enterobacter aerogenes with ZOI values 14 ± 0.43, 19 ± 0.33, 17 ± 0.13, 28 ± 0.33, 30 ± 0.33, 24 ± 0.17 mm diameters for AgNPs while AuNPs show the ZOI values as 16 ± 0.88, 16 ± 0.44, 14 ± 0.58, and 22 ± 0.44 mm diameter against Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Micrococcus luteus, and Enterobacter aerogenes, respectively | [229,230] |
Phoenix dactylifera (root hairs) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 15–40 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Candida albicans and Escherichia coli with 20 and 22 mm ZOI, respectively Anticancer activity: Against MCF7 cell lines with IC50 values of 29.6 μg/mL | [231] |
Sida cordifolia (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 3–6 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphyloccocus aureus with ZOI values as 15.0 ± 0.63, 17.17 ± 0.75, 18.00 ± 0.63, and 19.50 ± 0.55 mm, respectively | [232] |
Salvia spinose (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 450 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus vallismortis, and Escherichia coli with zone of inhibition diameters of 15, 16, and 12 mm | [233] |
Melaleuca alternifolia (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 11.56 nm | Antimicrobial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and Candida albicans with ZOI values ranges from 14.8 to 24.7 mm | [234] |
Parkia speciosa (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 31–35 nm | Antimicrobial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Bacillus subtilis with ZOI values ranging from 4.0 to 10 mm in diameter Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by DPPH assay with IC50 value of 15.26 μg/mL | [235] |
Hygrophila spinosa (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: Au Shape: spherical Size: 68.44 ± 0.30 nm | Anticancer activity: Against MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 (breast cancer), SKOV-3 (ovarian cancer) NCI/ADR (multi-drug resistant), and U-87 (glioblastoma, brain cancer) cell lines with significant percentage cell viability 43.78, 39.34, 21.45, 31.48, and 27.89%, respectively | [236] |
Clerodendrum phlomidis (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 23–42 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using phosphomolybdate (910 AEAA), ferric reducing power (1.63 AU), superoxide radical scavenging (IC50 55.86 μg/mL), and DPPH (IC50 9.12 μg/mL) assays Anticancer activity: Against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) and human colorectal adenocarcinoma (HT29) cell lines with 91.84% and 84.91% inhibition, respectively | [237] |
Aconitum toxicum Rchb (rhizome) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag, Au Shape: spherical Size: 9–15 nm for AuNPs and 53–67 nm for AgNPs | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with inhibition in between 78% and 84.32% at different concentrations | [238] |
Musa acuminata colla (flowers) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag, Au Shape: spherical Size: 12.6–15.7 nm for AgNPs and 10.1–15.6 nm for AuNPs | Antibacterial activity: Against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, Escherechia coli, Proteus mirabilis, and Pseodomonas aeruginosa with ZOI values 13, 9, 10, 9, 12, 6, and 12 mm for AgNPs) and 11, 0, 10, 9, 7, 8, and 9 for AuNPs at 1000 µg concentration Anticancer activity: 50% cell viability at 55.0 µg/mL and 35 µg/mL concentrations for AuNPs, and AgNPs respectively | [239] |
Allium cepa (cloves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 10–50 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against methicillin-resistant Staphyllococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aerigunosa with a maximum inhibition at 100 μg/mL concentration Anticancer activity: Against human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) with a maximum inhibition at 100 μg/mL concentration after 24 h | [240] |
Solanum nigurum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Au, Ag, Pd Shape: spherical Size: 3.46 nm for AgNPs, 9.39 nm for AuNPs, and 21.55 nm for PdNPs | Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli with ZOI values 19.2 and 20 mm, 23 and 20 mm, and 18 and 19 mm for AuNPs, AgNPS, and PdNPs, respectively, at 5 and 10 mL concentration | [241] |
Carthamus tinctorius L (flowers) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 38 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli with inhibition of 98% and 85% at 40 °C and 80 °C temperatures | [242] |
Carpesium cernuum (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 13.0 ± 0.2 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with IC50 value 0.121 ± 0.005 mg/mL Anticancer activity: Against human lung cancer A549 and B16F10 cell lines with 44.5 and 36.0% cytotoxicity on A549 and B16F10 respectively at 100 µg/mL concentration | [243] |
Ananas comosus (peels) | Aqueous | Metal: Fe Shape: spherical Size: 17.87 nm | Antifungal activity: Against Fusarium verticilliodes, Aspergillus flavus, and Alternaria alternate with inhibition zones ranging from 18.96 to 39.23 mm diameters | [244] |
Aaronsohnia factorovskyi (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 104–140 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli with an inhibition zone diameter of about 19.00 ± 2.94 mm Antifungal activity: Against Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Helminthosporium rostratum, and Alternaria alternate with reduced the growth of fungal yarn to 1.5 mm. | [245] |
Vernonia amygdalina (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: CuO Shape: spherical Size: 19.68 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter aerogenes. The uppermost zone of inhibition of 15 mm was observed for E. aerogenes | [246] |
Artemisia ciniformis (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 4–14 nm | Anticancer activity: Against gastric cancer with the highest inhibition of cell proliferation at 100 μg/mL concentration | [247] |
Cichorium intybus (leaves) | aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 17.17 nm | Anticancer activity: Against human breast cancer (MCF-7) with IC50 value 507.58 μg/mL after 24 h. | [248] |
Rhynchosia suaveolens (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 10–30 nm | Anticancer activity: Against DU145 and PC-3 (human prostate carcinoma cell lines), SKOV3 (human ovarian carcinoma), and A549 (human lung adenocarcinoma) with IC50 values of 4.35, 7.72, 4.2, and 24.7 μg/mL, respectively | [249] |
Solanum lycopersicum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: FeO Shape: flower shaped Size: 483.8 nm | Anticancer activity: Against human lung cancer cell line A549 with IC50 value 69 ± 0.50 μg/mL | [250] |
Ageratum conyzoides (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 14–48 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging assays with % inhibition 53.61 ± 0.01 to 89.82 ± 0.017 and 40.16 ± 0.13 to 81.1 ± 0.13 in 31.25 to 500 mg/mL concentrations, respectively. | [251] |
Blumea eriantha DC (whole plant) | Ethanol | Metal: Ag, Fe Shape: spherical Size: 50 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH (% inhibition 20.66 ± 0.90 for AgNPs and 17.25 ± 1.19 for FeNPs), ABTS (% inhibition 86.31 ± 0.21 for AgNPs, 74.94 ± 1.72 for FeNPs), H2O2 scavenging (% inhibition 92.14 ± 1.06 for AGNPs and, 57.00 ± 0.58 for FeNPs), and total antioxidant assay (% Inhibition 70.10 ± 0.53 for AgNPs and 56.14 ± 0.64% for FeNPs) Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus (ZOI 16.17 ± 2.08 for AgNPs and 13.06 ± 0.57 FeNPs), Bacillus subtilis (ZOI 14.12 ± 1.52 for AgNPs and 12.45 ± 0.52 for FeNPs), Bacillus cereus (ZOI 11.20 ± 1.15 for AgNPs and 10.12 ± 1.02 for FeNPs), and Escherichia coli (ZOI 15.24 ± 1.52 for AgNPs and 11.55 ± 1.18 for FeNPs) Anticancer activity: Against MCF-7 (human breast adenocarcinoma cell line) with % inhibition 15.45, 20.25, and 28.16 at the concentrations 25, 50, and 100 μg/mL, respectively, for AgNPs as well as 11.09, 17.81, and 22.25 at the concentration 25, 50, and 100 μg/mL respectively for FeNPs | [252] |
Artemisia abrotanum (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: MgO Shape: spherical Size: 10 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with IC50 4.73 µg/mL | [253] |
Cnici Benedictus (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: Au, CuO, and ZnO Shape: spherical Size: 13 nm for Au-CuONPs and 28 nm for CuO-ZnONPs | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC 0.3125), Escherichia coli (MIC 0.625), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC 2.5) Antifungal activity: Against Candida albicans (MIC 1.25). Anticancer activity: Against rat glioma C6 cells with IC50 0.907 and 4.91 for Au-CuONP and CuO-ZnONPs, respectively | [254] |
Elephantopus scaber (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 37.86 nm | Anticancer activity: Against human skin carcinoma cells on A375 and L929 cell lines with IC50 values 15.68 ± 0.15 μg/mL and 65.49 ± 0.40 μg/mL, respectively Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using the DPPH method with an IC50 value of 6.629 µg/mL Antibacterial activity: Against Bacillus subtilis, Lactococcus lactis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa Antifungal activity: Against Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus penicillioides with ZOI ranges from 12 to 24 mm for all the strains | [255] |
Acanthospermum hispidum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: quasi-spherical Size: 20–60 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli with a zone of inhibition of 17–19 at 100 µg/mL concentration Antifungal activity: Against Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, and Aspergillus clavatus with MIC 500, 250, and 500 MIC µg/mL, respectively Antimicrobacterial activity: Against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37RV with MIC 100 MIC µg/mL | [256] |
Leucaena leucocephala L. (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: quasi-spherical Size: 35–47 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilis with ZOI values of 16–19 at 100 µg/mL concentration Antimycobacterial activity: Against Mycobacterium tuberculosis with MIC of 125 μg/mL | [257] |
Silybum marianum (whole plant) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag-ZnO, ZnO Shape: quasi-spherical Size: 31.2 nm for ZnO, and 35.3 nm for Ag–ZnO | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus epidermidis, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with MIC values 250, 50, 150, 100, and 250 µg/mL for ZnONPs and 150, 50, 250, 150, and 150 µg/mL for Ag-ZnONPs, respectively Antifungal activity: Fusarium solani, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus niger with MIC values 50, 250, 500, and 100 µg/mL for ZnONPs and 50, 150, 700, and 150 µg/mL for Ag-ZnONPs, respectively Antioxidant activity: Total antioxidant capacity (67.6 ± 1.44 for ZnONPs and 72.6 ± 1.32 for Ag-ZnONPs, at 1000 μg/mL concentration), total reducing power (72.4 ± 2.78 for Ag-ZnONPs and 68.1 ± 1.31 for ZnONPs at 1000 μg/mL concentration) and DPPH (67.22 ± 2.1 for Ag-ZnONPs and 56.31 ± 1.4 for ZnONPs at 1000 μg/mL concentration) | [258] |
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (flowers) | Aqueous | Metal: ZnO Shape: spherical Size: 12–32 nm | Antifungal activity: Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum, and Penicillium expansum with MIC values 64, 16, 128, 64, and 128 µg/mL | [259] |
Melia azedarach (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 23 nm | Antifungal activity: Against Colletotrichum coccodes, Monilinia sp., and Pyricularia with growth inhibition of 18%, 33%, and 51%, respectively. | [260] |
Kleinia grandiflora (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20–50 nm | Anticancer activity: Against Dalton’s lymphoma ascites (DLA) cell lines with 40% cytotoxicity at 10 µg/mL concentration and IC50 of 500 nM after 6 h of treatment Antimicrobial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger with a zone of inhibition as 13 ± 0.7, 17 ± 1.02, 13 ± 0.32, and 15 ± 0.46, respectively | [261] |
Medicago sativa L. | Aqueous | Metal: ZnO Shape: hexagonal Size: 14 nm | Antimicrobial activity: Against Staphylococcus epidermidis, Lactococcus lactis, and Lactobacillus casei with MIC values in the range of 0.58–9.31 μg/mL Antifungal activity: Candida albicans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae with MIC values of 9.31 and 4.65 μg/mL | [262] |
Tussilago farfara (flower buds) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag, Au Shape: spherical Size: 13.57 ± 3.26 nm for AgNPs and 18.20 ± 4.11 nm for AuNPs | Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus with MIC values ranging from 10 to 40 µg/mL for AuNPs and AgNPs samples Anticancer activity: Against PANC-1 cells with IC50 values 166.1 and 71.2 µM for AgNPs and AuNPs, respectively. Against AGS cell lines with IC50 values 338 and 77.9 µM for AgNPs and AuNPs, respectively. Against HT-29 cell lines with IC50 values 275.3 and 87 µM for AgNPs and AuNPs, respectively | [263] |
Celastrus paniculatus (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Cu Shape: spherical Size: 2−10 nm | Antifungal activity: Against plant pathogenic fungi Fusarium oxysporum with showing 76.29 ± 1.52 maximum mycelial inhibition | [264] |
Pechuel-loeschea leubnitziae (roots) | Methanol | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 100 nm | Anticancer activity: Against the U87 glioma cell line with an IC50 value in the range of 0.64–0.71 µg/mL | [265] |
Centaurea pumilio L. (aerial parts) | Methanol | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 6 and 8 nm | Antimicrobial activity: Against Stapholococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans with ZOI values 22, 17, 12, 12 mm and no value, respectively. Antioxidant activity: Through estimation of SOD with activity in a dose-dependent-manner on the 4th and 7th days and then decreasing on the 14th day | [266] |
Artemisia turcomanica (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 22 nm | Anticancer activity: Against AGS (Human Gastric Adenocarcinoma) and normal L-929 cell lines with the IC50 value 15.43 and 14.56 μg/mL | [267] |
Hagenia abyssinica (Brace) JF. Gmel. (leaves) | Metal: Cu Shape: spherical, hexagonal, triangular, cylindrical, and irregularly shaped Size: 34.76 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis with ZOI 12.7, 12.7, 14.7, and 14.2 mm, respectively | [268] | |
Solanum nigrum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: CuO Shape: spherical Size: 32 and 25 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with 9–60% inhibition at different concentrations from ranges 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, and 500 µg/mL Antibacterial activity: Against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus, saprohyticus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with ZOI 13 ± 0.1, 11 ± 0.2, 15 ± 0.4, and 12 ± 0.6 nm, respectively, at a concentration of 100 µg | [269] |
Solanum nigrum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: ZnO Shape: spherical Size: 49 nm size | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH (21–94% inhibition) andH2O2 scavenging (12–95% inhibition) assays at 15–500 μg/mL concentrations with IC50 values 130.54 and 126.14 μg/mL, respectively. Antibacterial activity: Against Bacillus Subtilis, Staphylococcus saprohyticus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with ZOI 17, 15, 19, and 17 nm at 100 μg concentration | [270] |
Polyalthia longifolia (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: CuO Shape: quasi-spherical Size: 5–60 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Staphyloccocus pyogenes with MIC values 100, 12.5, 25, and 125 μg/mL respectively Antifungal activity: Aspergillus niger, Epidermophyton floccosum, Aspergillus clavatus, and Candida albicans with MIC values 1000, 100, 1000, and 1000 μg/mL, respectively | [271] |
Limonia acidissima (fruits) | Aqueous | Metal: MgO Shape: flake-like structure Size: 10–15 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus with MIC 0.25, 0.025, 0.25, and 0.025 μg/mL, respectively Antifungal activity: Against Alternaria alternate and Phomopsis azadirachtae with 91.48% and 95.33% inhibitions, respectively | [272] |
Cardiospermum halicacabum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: ZnO Shape: hexagonal quartzite Size: 65, 62, 55, and 48 nm | Antibacterial activity: Staphylococcus aurius, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with ZOI inhibition 20, 20, 21, and 19 mm at 0.6 mg concentration, respectively | [273] |
Oedera genistifolia (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 34.2 nm | Cytotoxicity: No cytotoxicity against HeLa cells Antibacterial activity: Against Listeria ivanovic, Streptococcus uberis, Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium, smergatis, Enterobacter cloacae, and Vibrio sp with MIC values 1.0, 0.5, 0.5, 0.25, 0.5, and 0.25 mg/mL, respectively | [274] |
Vernonia amygdalina (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Cu, Zn Shape: hexagonal wurtzite Size: 34 to 39 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli with ZOI values 21, 24, and 25 mm diameter, respectively | [275] |
Moringa oleifera (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: ZnO Shape: quasi-spherical Size: 35–95 nm | Antifungal activity: Against Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus clavatus, Trichophyton mentographytes, and Epidermophyton floccosum with MIC values 250, 250, 250, 100, and 100 µg/mL, respectively | [276] |
Wedelia chinensis (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 31.68 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH and reducing power assay with a maximum inhibition at 200 μg/mL and at absorbance 0.81 ± 0.146 Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes with ZOI 25.4 and 21.7 mm, respectively Cytotoxic: Showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity against Hep G2 cells with an IC50 value of 25 μg/mL | [277] |
Seripheidium quettense (leaves) | aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 49.96–54.36 nm | Antibacterial activity: Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Kle sela pneumonia with MIC 33.3, -, 100, 11.1, 100, and 33.3 μg/mL, respectively Antifungal activity: Against Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, and Mucor spp., with ZOI 12 ± 0.33, 10 ± 0.41, 13.2 ± 0.72, and 11 ± 0.78 mm diameter, respectively Anticancer activity: Demonstrated cytotoxic effects against HepG2 cells with IC50 of 62.5 µg/mL | [278] |
Albizia procera (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 6.18 nm | Antibacterial activity: Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus with ZOI 13.5 ± 3.1 and 18.5 ± 6.75 at 100 μg concentration dose | [279] |
Cynara scolymus (Leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: ZnO Shape: spherical Size: 65.9 nm | Antiproliferative activity: Against human breast cancer cell line (MCF 7) and Vero cells with IC50 values of 65.31 μg/μL and 957.85 μg/μL, respectively Antimicrobial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Candida tropicalis with MIC50 > 7, 25, >100, >100, and 0.35 µg/mL concentrations, respectively | [280] |
Mangifera indica (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: ZnO Shape: spherical and hexagonal quartzite Size: 45–60 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by DPPH assay with 20–90% inhibition at different concentrations Anticancer property: Evaluated cytotoxicity against lung cancer A549 cell lines with 85% cell viability at 1.0 μg/mL concentration | [281] |
Cissus arnotiana (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Cu Shape: spherical Size: 60–90 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Streptococcus sp., Rhizobium sp., and Klebsiella sp., with 22.20 ± 0.16, 20.23 ± 0.35, 16.33 ± 0.13, and 18.25 ± 0.12 at 75 μg mL concentration Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with % radical scavenging activity 18 ± 1, 21 ± 2, 20 ± 8, 19 ± 6, 18 ± 2 at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 μg/mL concentrations | [282] |
Tridax. procumbens (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 54.34 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH free radical scavenging activity (60.96 ± 0.61% inhibition), metal chelating activity (53.24 ± 0.56% inhibition), and β-carotene linoleic (85.26 ± 0.16% inhibition) assays Antibacterial activity: against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, Shigella fexneri, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterococcus faecalis, and Staphylococcus aureus with ZOI inhibition ranges from 11 ± 1.00 to 15.33 ± 0.58 mm diameter and MIC values from 11.43 to 102.8 µg/mL, respectively, for all the strains, respectively | [283] |
Taraxacum officinale (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 15 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH radical scavenging ((IC50 = 56.1 μg/mL), ABTS radical scavenging (IC50 = 45.6 μg/mL), and nitric oxide (NO) scavenging (IC50 = 55.2 μg/mL) assays Anticancer activity: Against human liver carcinoma cells HepG2 cells with a maximum inhibition at 25 μg/mL Antimicrobial activity: Against Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri and Pseudomonas syringae with ZOI 17.2 ± 0.65, 20.2 ± 0.84, 22.0 ± 0.84 mm, and 15.4 ± 0.32, 17.2 ± 0.65, 19.5 ± 0.66 mm at 10, 20, and 30 µg/mL concentrations, respectively | [284] |
Tragopogon collinus (whole plant) | Ethanol and methanol | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 7–18 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus with ZOI 2, 5, and 10 mm and Escherichia coli with ZOI 4, 7, and 8 mm at 6000, 7000, and 8000 µg/mL concentrations, respectively | [285] |
Deverra tortuosa (aerial part) | Aqueous | Metal: ZnO Shape: hexagonal and Wurtzite structures Size: 9.26–31.18 nm | Anticancer activity: Against cancer cell lines namely human colon adenocarcinoma “Caco-2” with IC50 50.81 μg/mL and human lung adenocarcinoma “A549” with IC50 83.47 μg/mL, respectively | [286] |
Pulicaria vulgaris Gaertn. (aerial part) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 28.6 ± 9.0 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli with MIC values ranging from 60 to 80 µg/mL and MBC values ranging from 80 to 100 µg/mL Antifungal activity: Against Candida albicans, and Candidia glabrata MIC values ranging from 40 to 60 µg/mL and MCF values ranging from 80 to 100 µg/mL Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH radical scavenging assay with maximum scavenging activity at 120 µg/mL concentration | [287] |
Rhododendron arboretum (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: MgO Shape: spherical Size: NA | Antibacterial activity: Escherichia coli, Spectrococous mutans, and Proteus vulgaris with ZOI 36 mm, 32 mm, and 24 mm at 10 mg/L concentration, respectively | [288] |
Aegle marmelos (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: ZnFe2O4 Shape: spherical Size: NA | Antibacterial activity: Against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis with ZOI 17, 25, 22, and 23 nm | [289] |
Costus pictus D.(leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: MgO Shape: hexagonal Size: 50 nm | Antibacterial activity: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella paratyphi with ZOI 5.5, 10.0, 12.5, and 15.0 mm Antifungal activity: Candidia albicans and Aspergillus niger with ZOI 10.5 and 12.5 mm Anticancer activity: Against DLA cell line with % inhibition 2 ± 0.152, 9 ± 0.025, 18 ± 0.174, 30 ± 0.035, and 52 ± 0.0.053 at 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 µg/mL concentrations, respectively | [290] |
Tropaeolum majus L. (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 35–55 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with MIC values from 50 to 450 µg/mL Antifungal activity: Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Penicillium notatum, Trichoderma viridiae, and Mucor sp. with MIC values from 12 to 170 µg/mL Anticancer activity: Against MCF7 and VERO cells with 50% inhibition at 3–4 and 5–6 µg/mL concentrations, respectively. | [291] |
Psidium guajava L. (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20–35, 25 nm, and 25–35 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH (IC50 values of 52.53 ± 0.31 μg/mL) and ABTS (IC50 values of 55.10 ± 0.29 μg/mL) radical scavenging assays Antimicrobial activity: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus, Alcaligenes faecalis, and Escherichia coli with a maximum inhibition at 100 μg/mL concentration. | [292] |
Handelia trichophylla (flowers) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20–50 nm | Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with ZOI 10.2, 9.1, and 8.5 mm for negative control as well as 16.3, 11.3, 11.3, and 9.8 mm for positive control, respectively | [293] |
Pimpinella anisum (seeds) | Methanol | Metal: Ag, Au Shape: spherical Size: ~15 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with IC50 45.53 and 191.58 µg/mL for AgNPs and AuNPs samples, respectively Antibacterial activity: Against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli with ZOI 11 and 13 mm for AgNPs while AuNPs were inactive against these strains Antifungal activity: Against Aspergillus flavus and Candida albicans with ZOI 10 and 11 mm for AgNPs while AuNPs were inactive against these strains | [294] |
Gundelia tournefortii L. (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Au Shape: spherical Size: 40–45 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with IC50 194 μg/mL Antibacterial activity: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, and Streptococcus pneumonia with MIC values 2 ± 0, 4 ± 0, 2 ± 0, 2 ± 0, 2 ± 0, 4 ± 0 mg/mL, respectively Antifungal activity: Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida krusei, and Candida guilliermondii with MIC values 4 ± 0, 4 ± 0, 2 ± 0, 2 ± 0 mg/mL, respectively | [295] |
Plectranthus asirensis (aerial parts) | Ethanol | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 20 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by using DPPH assay with IC50 12.725 ± 0.326 and 14.541 ± 0.225 µg/mL values for luteolin and stigmasterol in extract, respectively | [296] |
Harpagophytum procumbens (roots) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 82 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by chemiluminescence method for short-lived free radicals (inhibition = 73%) and ABTS method for long-lived free radicals (inhibition = 18.3%) respectively | [297] |
Hyacinthus orientalis L. and Dianthus caryophyllus L. (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 61.45 and 89.6 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by chemiluminescence method with inhibition of free radicals ranging between 88.30 and 97.38% | [298] * |
Salvia officinalis L. (leaves) | Aqueous | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 75 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by chemiluminescence method with 98.6% inhibition of free radicals | [299] * |
Anthriscus cerefolium L. (aerial part) | Hydroalcoholic | Metal: Ag Shape: spherical Size: 10–15 nm | Antioxidant activity: Evaluated by DPPH radical scavenging and chemiluminescence method with significant percentage inhibition (55–78%) | [300] * |
7. Future Outlooks and Directions
- When produced through physical and chemical processes, nanoparticles are uniform and homogeneous. However, synthesized by biological methods, PDMNPs are variable in shape and size. Consequently, logical investigations need to be employed to ensure the uniformity of particles.
- The exact amount of reducing agents (bioactive compounds) in plant extracts is unknown if it is not standardized quantitatively. Therefore, plant extract should be standardized qualitatively and quantitatively in order to maintain the homogeneity of formed PDMNPs.
- PDMNPs are synthesized using metals, which may be toxic to the human body if consumed in large quantities. Most reports do not include the toxicity profile of synthesized PDMNPs, as well as biological studies. To address these issues of the precise mechanism, distribution, toxicity, and adverse effects, comprehensive pharmacokinetic studies are required extensively.
- The majority of PDMNP therapeutic applications and molecular mechanisms are based on ROS generated during biological actions. Despite these studies, the negative effects on normal cells/tissues lack a mode of action, which is one of the most pressing issues that must be addressed accurately.
- Extensive clinical or in vivo research is also required to develop PDMNPs in the appropriate dosage forms for the treatment of a variety of diseases.
- Despite ROS-mediated therapeutic actions, other modes of action of PDMNPs must be investigated further in order to be effective against other diseases.
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Khan, M.F.; Khan, M.A. Plant-Derived Metal Nanoparticles (PDMNPs): Synthesis, Characterization, and Oxidative Stress-Mediated Therapeutic Actions. Future Pharmacol. 2023, 3, 252-295. https://doi.org/10.3390/futurepharmacol3010018
Khan MF, Khan MA. Plant-Derived Metal Nanoparticles (PDMNPs): Synthesis, Characterization, and Oxidative Stress-Mediated Therapeutic Actions. Future Pharmacology. 2023; 3(1):252-295. https://doi.org/10.3390/futurepharmacol3010018
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhan, Mohammad Faheem, and Mohd Aamish Khan. 2023. "Plant-Derived Metal Nanoparticles (PDMNPs): Synthesis, Characterization, and Oxidative Stress-Mediated Therapeutic Actions" Future Pharmacology 3, no. 1: 252-295. https://doi.org/10.3390/futurepharmacol3010018