Land Use and Soil Organic Carbon Stocks—Change Detection over Time Using Digital Soil Assessment: A Case Study from Kamyaran Region, Iran (1988–2018)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Land Use Change Detection
2.3. Soil Organic Carbon Stocks (SOCS)
2.4. Digital Map** of SOCS
2.4.1. Environmental Covariates
2.4.2. Random Forest
2.5. Reconstructing of SOCS in 1988
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Accuracy Assessment of Land Use Classification
3.2. Land Use Change Trends
3.3. Summary Statistics of SOC and SOCS
3.4. Link between SOCS and Land Use
3.5. SOCS Loss
3.6. Digital Map** of SOCS
3.6.1. Covariate Importance
3.6.2. Random Forests
3.6.3. Spatial Distribution of SOCS
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Years | Mean Absolute Minimum Temperature | Mean Absolute Maximum Temperature °C | Mean Temperature °C | Evaporation mm | Wind Velocity ms−1 | Precipitation mm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1988 | 1.4 | 26.5 | 13.4 | 141.8 | 15.2 | 535 |
2018 | 2.1 | 28.5 | 14.3 | 164.23 | 13.2 | 591 |
Covariate Data Source | Symbol | Attribute |
---|---|---|
Digital Elevation Model | AS | Aspect |
CA | Catchment area | |
CS | Catchment slope | |
CNBL | Catchment network base level | |
CND | Catchment network distance | |
EL | Elevation | |
LS factor | Slope length factor | |
MrVBF | Multi-resolution valley bottom flatness | |
CU | Curvature | |
RSP | Relative slope position | |
SL | Slope | |
TWI | Topographic wetness index | |
VD | Valley depth | |
FA | Flow accumulation | |
Landsat 8 | BL | Blue band |
BG | Green band | |
BR | Red band | |
BN | Near infrared | |
BSH1 | Shortwave IR-1 | |
BSH2 | Shortwave IR-2 | |
CI | Clay index: (SWIR-1/SWIR-2) | |
BI | Brightness index: ((RED)2+(NIR)2)0.5 | |
NDVI | Normalized difference vegetation index: (NIR − RED)/(NIR + RED) | |
SAVI | (1 + L) × (NIR − RED)/(NIR + RED + L) | |
EVI | Enhanced vegetation index: (NIR − RED)/(NIR + C1 × RED − C2 × BLUE + L2) | |
Land use map | Landu map | Land use unit |
Geology map | Geo map | Geology unit |
Physiography map | Physi map | Physiographic unit |
Temperature map | Tem map | Mean annual temperature |
Precipitation map | Pre map | Mean annual precipitation |
Years | Land Use Class | Poor-Quality Rangeland | Forest | Built-Up | Orchard | Moderate-Quality Rangeland | High-Quality Rangeland | Cropland | Total | User’s Accuracy (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1988 | Poor-quality rangeland | 15 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 93.75 |
Forest | 0 | 23 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 27 | 85.18 | |
Built-up | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 100 | |
Orchard | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 100 | |
Moderate-quality rangeland | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 84.61 | |
High-quality rangeland | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 10 | 100 | |
Cropland | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 15 | 20 | 75 | |
Total | 15 | 26 | 6 | 13 | 11 | 14 | 15 | 100 | ||
Producer’s Accuracy (%) | 100 | 88.46 | 100 | 61.53 | 100 | 71 | 100 | |||
Overall accuracy (%) | 88 | |||||||||
Kappa index (%) | 85 | |||||||||
2018 | Poor-quality rangeland | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | 1 | 16 | 19 | 82.85 |
Forest | 2 | 9 | 1 | 0 | - | 1 | 1 | 14 | 64.28 | |
Built-up | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | - | 0 | 0 | 8 | 90.90 | |
Orchard | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | - | 11 | 0 | 13 | 100 | |
High-quality rangeland | 1 | 0 | 10 | 0 | - | 0 | 0 | 11 | 84.61 | |
Cropland | 29 | 1 | 1 | 2 | - | 1 | 1 | 35 | 84.21 | |
Total | 35 | 10 | 13 | 10 | - | 14 | 18 | 100 | ||
Producer’s Accuracy (%) | 82.85 | 90 | 76.92 | 80 | - | 78.57 | 88.88 | |||
Overall accuracy (%) | 83 | |||||||||
Kappa index (%) | 78 |
Land Use Unit | Area | Change Area | Rate | Changed Area | Rate | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(ha) | (%) | (ha) | (%) | (ha) | (%) | |||
1988 | 2018 | 1988 | 2018 | Loss | Gain | |||
Forest | 4723.11 | 3670.965 | 26.61 | 20.68 | −1052.14 | −22.27 | ||
High-quality rangeland | 1468.26 | 1037.813 | 8.27 | 5.85 | −430.44 | −29.31 | ||
Moderate-quality rangeland | 3595.77 | 0 | 20.26 | 0 | −3595.77 | −100 | ||
Built-up | 603.27 | 395.32 | 3.40 | 2.23 | −207.94 | −34.46 | ||
Cropland | 3698.01 | 5338.08 | 20.84 | 30.08 | +1640.05 | +30.72 | ||
Poor-quality rangeland | 2766.69 | 4664.61 | 15.59 | 26.28 | +1897.92 | +40.68 | ||
Orchard | 892.89 | 2641.21 | 5.03 | 14.88 | +1748.32 | +66.19 | ||
Sum | 17,748 | 17,748 | 100 | 100 | 5286.29 | 5286.29 |
Depth (cm) | Number | Mean | Minimum | Maximum | Standard Deviation | Skewness | Kurtosis | CV | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SOC (%) | 0–20 | 93 | 0.89 | 0.07 | 2.96 | 0.61 | 0.90 | 0.68 | 69.91 |
BD (g cm−3) | 0–20 | 93 | 1.49 | 1.2 | 1.89 | 0.17 | 0.38 | 0.38 | 11.78 |
Rock fragment >2 mm (%) | 0–20 | 93 | 33.78 | 0.00 | 84.88 | 21.29 | 0.56 | −0.26 | 65.38 |
SOC Stock (Mg C ha−1) | 0–20 | 93 | 1.73 | 0.07 | 8.18 | 1.33 | 1.53 | 4.59 | 80.21 |
SOC (%) | 20–50 | 93 | 0.46 | 0.04 | 2.03 | 0.38 | 1.69 | 3.59 | 84.01 |
BD (g cm−3) | 20–50 | 93 | 1.35 | 1.1 | 1.88 | 0.25 | −0.23 | −0.23 | 17.25 |
Rock fragment >2 mm (%) | 20–50 | 93 | 33.71 | 0.00 | 89.00 | 23.56 | 0.52 | −0.48 | 70.29 |
SOC Stock (Mg C ha−1) | 20–50 | 93 | 1.35 | 0.05 | 6.87 | 1.25 | 1.81 | 4.16 | 96.33 |
Land Use | Slope Class | Total of Soil Samples | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–2% (Flat) | 2–5% (Southern) | 5–10% (Northern) | 10%< (Eastern) | ||||||||||||
0–20 | 20–50 | 0–50 | 0–20 | 20–50 | 0–50 | 0–20 | 20–50 | 0–50 | 0–20 | 20–50 | 0–50 | 0–20 | 20–50 | 0–50 | |
cm | cm | cm | cm | ||||||||||||
Forest | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2.94a | 1.66ab | 4.6ab | 2.94a | 1.66b | 4.6b |
High-quality rangeland | 4.48a | 4.12a | 8.60a | 2.88a | 3.61a | 6.49a | 3.02a | 2.70a | 5.72a | 2.83ab | 2.63a | 5.46a | 3.08a | 3.41a | 6.49a |
Cropland | 1.61b | 2.00b | 3.61b | 1.43b | 1.08b | 2.51b | 1.30a | 1.31a | 2.61a | 2.24ab | 0.95c | 3.19abc | 1.49b | 1.39b | 2.88bc |
Poor-quality rangeland | - | - | - | 0.99b | 1.03b | 2.02b | 2.01a | 1.13a | 2.14a | 0.84c | 0.55c | 1.39c | 1.17b | 0.90b | 2.07c |
Orchard | 1.37b | 0.86b | 2.23b | 1.21b | 0.80b | 2.01b | 2.17a | 0.99a | 3.16a | 1.48ab | 1.02c | 2.50bc | 1.79b | 0.90b | 2.69c |
p = (Tukey’s test) | <0.05 ** | <0.05 ** | <0.05 ** | <0.05 ** | <0.05 ** | <0.05 ** | ns | ns | ns | <0.05 ** | ns | <0.05 ** | <0.05 ** | <0.05 ** | <0.05 ** |
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Nabiollahi, K.; Shahlaee, S.; Zahedi, S.; Taghizadeh-Mehrjardi, R.; Kerry, R.; Scholten, T. Land Use and Soil Organic Carbon Stocks—Change Detection over Time Using Digital Soil Assessment: A Case Study from Kamyaran Region, Iran (1988–2018). Agronomy 2021, 11, 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030597
Nabiollahi K, Shahlaee S, Zahedi S, Taghizadeh-Mehrjardi R, Kerry R, Scholten T. Land Use and Soil Organic Carbon Stocks—Change Detection over Time Using Digital Soil Assessment: A Case Study from Kamyaran Region, Iran (1988–2018). Agronomy. 2021; 11(3):597. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030597
Chicago/Turabian StyleNabiollahi, Kamal, Shadi Shahlaee, Salahudin Zahedi, Ruhollah Taghizadeh-Mehrjardi, Ruth Kerry, and Thomas Scholten. 2021. "Land Use and Soil Organic Carbon Stocks—Change Detection over Time Using Digital Soil Assessment: A Case Study from Kamyaran Region, Iran (1988–2018)" Agronomy 11, no. 3: 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030597