Municipal Solid Waste Fly Ash-Derived Zeolites as Adsorbents for the Recovery of Nutrients and Heavy Metals—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Zeolites
2.1. The Crystalline Structure of Zeolites
- X-ray diffraction (XRD) is used to study the crystal structure and size of zeolite, the approximate extent of heteroatom substitution, and the presence of defects in zeolites [26].
- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is used for the characterization of zeolite structures, for instance, structure determination of new zeolites, study of growth mechanisms of nano-sized zeolites and pore structures of hierarchical micro- and meso-porous zeolites, and analysis of metal sites in zeolites [27].
- Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is used to specify the functional units of zeolites and to predict the reaction mechanisms in the zeolite framework. The FTIR spectrum is also used to indicate the secondary building units that were found in the zeolite structure [26].
- A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to study the surface of solids and give information about their morphology and textural properties [26].
2.2. Naturally and Synthesized Zeolites
2.3. Zeolite Synthesis
2.4. MSW-FA as Source to Silicate and Alumina in Zeolite Synthesis
Element | Unit | Fly Ash/APC Residues | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Max | Median | ||
Main elements | ||||
Si | g/kg | 36 | 190 | - |
Al | g/kg | 6.4 | 93 | - |
Fe | g/kg | 0.76 | 71 | - |
Ca | g/kg | 46 | 361 | - |
Mg | g/kg | 1.1 | 19 | - |
K | g/kg | 17 | 109 | - |
Na | g/kg | 6.2 | 84 | - |
Ti | g/kg | 0.7 | 12 | - |
S | g/kg | 1.4 | 32 | - |
Cl | g/kg | 45 | 380 | - |
P | g/kg | 1.7 | 9.6 | - |
Mn | g/kg | 0.2 | 1.7 | - |
TOC | g/kg | 4.9 | 17 | - |
LOI | g/kg | 11 | 120 | - |
SiO2 | % | 11.5 | 41.4 | 19.1 |
Al2O3 | % | 4.7 | 24.3 | 10.9 |
CaO | % | 17 | 31.5 | 22.0 |
SO3 | % | 3 | 10.2 | 6.4 |
Na2O | % | 3.8 | 9.6 | 5.9 |
K2O | % | 2 | 8.1 | 4.5 |
Fe2O3 | % | 1.3 | 5.9 | 2.5 |
MgO | % | 1.7 | 6.9 | 2.7 |
Minor elements | ||||
As | mg/kg | 18 | 960 | - |
Cd | mg/kg | 16 | 1660 | - |
Cr | mg/kg | 72 | 570 | - |
Cu | mg/kg | 16 | 2220 | - |
Hg | mg/kg | 0.1 | 51 | - |
Ni | mg/kg | 19 | 710 | - |
Pb | mg/kg | 254 | 27,000 | - |
Zn | mg/kg | 4308 | 41,000 | - |
2.5. Producing Zeolite-Like Material from MSW Fly Ash
2.5.1. Specific Leaching of Salt as Pre-Treatment
2.5.2. Generating Al- and Si-Containing Zeolite Precursors
2.5.3. Hydrothermal Zeolite Synthesis from MSW-FA
2.5.4. Controlled Acid Leaching and Solidification of Heavy Metals
Controlled Acid Leaching of Heavy Metals
Solidification of Heavy Metals
2.5.5. Destruction of Dioxins and Furans
2.5.6. Production Efficiency and Waste Management Related to Production of Zeolites from MSW-FA
- Continuous-flow synthesis: The use of a tubular reactor in a continuous-flow synthesis of zeolites makes it possible to complete the crystallization in a matter of seconds or minutes due to the large heat transfer coefficient [128]. Liu et al. (2016) [129] synthesized ZSM-5 from a well-mixed and pre-heated precursor solution containing NaOH, pure colloidal silica, aluminium hydroxide (with gibbsite structure), and tetrapropylammonium hydroxide (TPAOH) as structural agents (50 NaOH:Al2O3:300 SiO2:20 TPAOH:2300 H2O). The precursor solution was continuously fed (1 mL/min) into a millimetre-sized (Di 2.18 mm) continuous flow reactor together with pre-heated (370 °C) pressurized water (1.6 mL/min), resulting in complete crystallization within tens of seconds. Because the actual reactor volume was quite small (15.6 mL), the continuous flow process generated a very high space–time yield (ca. 7000 kg/m3h) [129].
- Collecting generated off-gases: Gases such as ammonia and hydrogen are often generated in generous amounts during hydrothermal synthesis. López-Delgado et al. (2020) [130] developed a conceptual design that included the recovery of 76 Nm3 NH3 (from aluminium nitride) and 106 Nm3 H2 per ton of aluminium waste (77% Al2O3 and 4 wt% SiO2) used in the one-step hydrothermal process (10 kg Al waste, 5.3 kg NaOH pellets, 22.9 kg waterglass, and 132 L tap water at 1 bar and 80 °C for 12 h). To avoid gas generation inside the reactor, the aluminium waste was partially hydrolyzed with water and NaOH in a separate compartment.
3. Targeted Sorption of Cations
3.1. Zeolites as Cation Exchange Resins
3.2. Sorption Mechanisms
3.2.1. Adsorption of Heavy Metals
3.2.2. Adsorption of Ammonium
3.3. Factors Affecting the Sorption of Cations
3.3.1. Framework Type vs. Size of the Cation
Ion | Unhydrated Radius | Hydrated Radius | ΔhydG | Ion | Unhydrated Radius | Hydrated Radius | ΔhydG |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Å | Å | kJ/mol | Å | Å | kJ/mol | ||
Li+ | 0.60 | 3.82 | −475 | Cu2+ | 0.72 | 4.19 | −2010 |
Na+ | 0.95 | 3.58 | −365 | Zn2+ | 0.74 | 4.30 | −1955 |
K+ | 1.33 | 3.31 | −295 | Cd2+ | 0.97 | 4.26 | −1755 |
Ca2+ | 0.99 | 4.12 | −1505 | Pb2+ | 1.32 | 4.01 | −1425 |
NH4+ | 1.48 | 3.31 | −285 | Cr3+ | 0.64 | 4.61 | −4010 |
NO3− | 2.64 | 3.35 | −300 | Ni2+ | 0.70 | 4.04 | −1980 |
H2PO4− | - | 2.6 | - | ||||
PO43− | - | 7.9 1 | −2765 |
Zeolite | Origin | Si/Al | Selectivity | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Synthetic zeolites | ||||
FAU-type | Coal FA | 2.5 | Pb2+ > Cu2+ > Cd2+ > Zn2+ > Co2+ | [159] |
NaP1 | Coal FA | 1.7 | Cr3+ > Cu2+ > Zn2+ > Cd2+ > Ni2+ | [156] |
4A | Coal FA | 1.32 | Cu2+ > Cr3+ > Zn2+ > Co2+ > Ni2+ | [155] |
X | Egyptian kaolin and Na2Si2O5 | 1.15 | Pb2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Zn2+ > Ni2+ | [160] |
A | Egyptian kaolin and Na2Si2O5 | 1.04 | Pb2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Zn2+ > Ni2+ | [160] |
Natural zeolites | ||||
Mordenite | Natural | 4.4–5.5 | Cu2+ > Co2+≈Zn2+ > Ni2+ | [161] |
Clinoptilolite | Natural | 4.9 | Pb2+ > Zn2+ > Cu2+ > Ni2+ | [162] |
Clinoptilolite | Natural | 4.8 | Cu2+ > Cr3+ > Zn2+ > Cd2+ > Ni2+ | [156] |
Clinoptilolite | Natural | 4.2 | Pb2+ > Cd2+ > Zn2+≈Cu2+ | [163] |
Clinoptilolite | Natural | 2.7–5.3 | Pb2+ > Ag+ > Cd2+ ≈ Zn2+ > Cu2+ | [161] |
Phillipsite | Natural | 2.4–2.7 | Pb2+ > Cd2+ > Zn2+ > Co2+ | [163] |
Chabazite | Natural | 2.2–2.6 | Pb2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Zn2+ > Co2+ | [163] |
Scolecite | Natural | 1.56 | Cu2+ > Zn2+ > Pb2+ > Ni2+ > Co2+ > Co2+ | [164] |
3.3.2. Cation Concentration and Competing Ions
3.3.3. Purity of the Zeolite
3.3.4. Hydrophilicity/Hydrophobicity
3.3.5. Compensation Cations
3.3.6. Available Adsorption Surface and Size of the Zeolite Particles
3.3.7. pH
3.3.8. Temperature
3.3.9. Contact Time
4. Sorption of Nitrate and Phosphate Using Zeolites
- Lowering the pH to make the zeolite cationic
- Modifying the surface of the zeolite by cationic metal-do** or using surfactants.
4.1. pH-Derived Cationic Zeolites
Zeolite | App. Sorption Capacity | Conc. Range | S/L Ratio | Contact Time | Temp. | pH | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg/g | mg P/L | g/L | h | °C | - | ||
Non-modified zeolites | |||||||
NaP1 | 11.4 | 12.5–200 | 1 | 24 | 25 | 5.3 | [182] |
NaA | 15.7 | ||||||
Clinoptilolite | 20.2 | ||||||
A | 52.9 | 50–1000 | 6.6 | 4 | 70 | 5.5 | [186] |
Clinoptilolite | 1.3 | 10–100 | 48 | 2 | 25 | 2 | [188] |
Zeolite from coal-FA | 11.7–42.4 | 1000 | 10 | 24 | room | 3.5–9 | [184] |
Clinoptilolite | 0.77 | 0.03–3.1 | 8 | 24 | room | 3.0 | [189] |
NaP1-zeolite from coal-FA | 34.7 | 0.5–1000 | 10 | 24 | 18–22 | - | [183] |
Salt-modified zeolites | |||||||
LaP1 | 58.2 | 12.5–200 | 1 | 24 | 25 | 5.3 | [182] |
LaA | 48.9 | ||||||
La-clinoptilolite | 25.5 | ||||||
TiO2-modified clinoptilolite | 34.2 | 10–100 | 20 | 2 | 25 | 2 | [188] |
Ca-bearing K-zeolite | 142–250 | 100–16,000 | 16.7 | 0.8–2.2 | 22 | 6–9 | [190] |
Zr oxide merlinoite | 67.7 | 5–200 | 0.2–2 | 4 | 40 | <5 | [191] |
CaP1-zeolite from coal-FA | 49.5 | 0.5–1000 | 10 | 24 | 18–22 | - | [183] |
MgP1-zeolite from coal-FA | 31.3 | ||||||
AlP1-zeolite from coal-FA | 29.9 | ||||||
FeP1-zeolite from coal-FA | 30.9 | ||||||
Cu-zeolite X | 87.7 | 10–200 | 1 | 24 | 25 | 5.0 | [192] |
Surfactant-modified zeolites | |||||||
HDTMA-Br clinoptilolite | 20.9 | 0.03–3.1 | 8 | 24 | room | 12.0 | [189] |
HDP-Br clinoptilolite | 11.6 |
4.2. Modification of Zeolites
4.2.1. Metal-Doped Zeolites
4.2.2. Surfactant-Modified Zeolites (SMZs)
4.2.3. Adsorption of Phosphate by Modified Zeolites
Results with Metal-Doped Zeolites
Results with Surfactant-Modified Zeolites
4.2.4. Adsorption of Nitrate by Surfactant-Modified Zeolites
Zeolite | Surfactant | Amount Adsorbed | Conc. Range | S/L Ratio | Contact Time | Temp. | pH | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg NO3/g | mg NO3/L | g/L | h | °C | - | |||
Clinoptilolite | polydopamine | 2.47 | 150 | - | 0.30 | 10 | 3 | [204] |
ZSM-5 nanocrystals | HDTMA-Br | 50 | 50–2500 | 0.5 | 24 | room | 6 | [39] |
ZSM-5 nanosheets | HDTMA-Br | 120 | ||||||
ZSM-5 nanosponges | HDTMA-Br | 132 | ||||||
clinoptilolite-rich turf | HDTMA-Br | 4.96 | 124–1240 | 100 | 24 | room | - | [202] |
Natural zeolite | HDTMA-Br | 2.42 | 5 | 0.91 | 2 | room | 7 | [205] |
*BEA-type zeolite nanosponge | HDTMA-Br | 83 | 50–1500 | 2 | 2 min | room | 5.5 | [41] |
*BEA-type zeolite nanocrystals | HDTMA-Br | 19 | 25 | 5 min | ||||
Clinoptilolite-rich tuf | HDTMA-Br | 6.07 | 1–113 | 20–200 | 24 | room | 5–6 | [207] |
Natural zeolite | CPB | 9.68 | 89 | 2 | 0.5 | 15 | 6 | [206] |
4.2.5. Leaching of Surfactants—A Potential Setback
5. Practical Application of Zeolites as Adsorbent
5.1. Production and Use of Shaped and Structured Zeolites
5.2. Physical Separation of Powdered Zeolites—Magnetic Zeolites
6. Reuse of Adsorbed Compounds
- Use them as they are, embedded in zeolite, typically as slow-release compounds, for instance, in fertilizers.
- Recover them from the zeolite by controlled release.
6.1. Slow Release of Compounds from the Zeolite during Application
6.2. Controlled Release of Compounds of Interest
6.2.1. Methods Used to Release the Compounds from Zeolites
Compound | Zeolite | Release Conditions | Important Factors | Released Compound | Desorption Efficiency | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu2+ | Synthetic from FA | 0.1–0.8 M H2SO4 | High conc. H2SO4 | CuSO4 | 96–102% (four cycles) | [233] |
Ni2+ | Synthetic from FA | 0.1–0.8 M H2SO4 | High conc. H2SO4 | NiSO4 | 84–98% (four cycles) | [233] |
Cd2+ | Natural zeolites | 0.1 M HCl (54–80 bed volumes) | - | CdCl2 | 90% first cycle | [234] |
Zn2+ | Natural zeolites | 0.1 M HCl (6–30 bed volumes) | - | ZnCl2 | 90% first cycle | [234] |
Cr6+ | HDTMA-modified clinoptilolite-rich tuff | 0.28 M Na2CO3 and 0.5 M NaOH (L/S: 3 mL/g); regeneration with 3 × 0.1 M HCl (L/S: 3 mL/g) | - | - | 90% first cycle (100% regeneration) | [213] |
NH4+ | Alkali-treated clinoptilolite | 0.5 M HCl | - | NH4Cl | Adsorption unaffected after 12 cycles | [235] |
NH4+ | Zeolite from FA | 1 M NaCl (3 × 25 mL/2 g zeolite) at 25 °C for 1.25 h | - | NH4Cl | Ca. 10% loss in adsorbent capacity after one cycle | [236] |
NH4+ | Clinoptilolite | 20 g NaCl/L for 15 h | High NaCl conc. | NH4Cl | 100% (five cycles). Adsorption capacity increased from 9.2 mg/g to 10.9 mg/g (over first three cycles) | [237] |
NH4+ | Clinoptilolite | 30 g NaCl/L (123–134 BV) | Low flow rate to get high conc. | NH4Cl | 88–95% | [231] |
NH4+ | Synthetic NaA | 30 g NaCl/L (43–46 BV) | 92–95% | |||
NH4+ | Clinoptilolite | 10% NaCl and 0.6% NaOH | Increased desorption: 10–15% NaCl and 0–0.6% NaOH | NH3 | 100% | [229] |
PO43− | La-doped zeolite from FA | 3 M NaOH (L/S ratio 80:1) at 250 °C for 5 h | High conc. NaOH (<4 M NaOH), high L/S ratio, high temp | Na3PO4 | 95% (five cycles) | [154] |
NO3− | Polydopamin-coated clinoptilolite | 0.01 M and 0.05 M NaOH | - | NaNO3 | 59–71% (three cycles) | [204] |
NO3− | HDTMA-modified clinoptilolite | 1 M NaBr (L/S: 5 mL/g) for 6 h | - | NaNO3 | Ca. 100% first cycle | [208] |
6.2.2. Downstream Concentration and Refinement
Concentrating Ammonia by Strip** and Condensation
Concentrating by Precipitation
6.2.3. Regeneration of the Zeolite’s Adsorption Capacity
7. Discussion and Need for Further Studies
7.1. MSW-FA as a Source for Synthetic Zeolites
7.2. Capturing Efficiency
7.3. Acceptance and Need of Recovered End-Products
8. Concluding Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Hoornweg, D.; Bhada-Tata, P. What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management; The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Kaza, S.; Yao, L.; Bhada-Tata, P.; Van Woerden, F. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050; Urban Development: Washington, DC, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, D.; Zhang, Y.; Xu, Y.; Nie, Q.; Yang, Z.; Shenga, W.; Qian, G. Municipal solid waste incineration residues recycled for typical construction materials—A review. RSC Adv. 2022, 12, 6279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lindberg, D.; Molin, C.; Hupa, M. Thermal treatment of solid residues from WtE units: A review. Waste Manag. 2015, 37, 82–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Quina, M.J.; Bontempi, E.; Bogush, A.; Schlumberger, S.; Weibel, G.; Braga, R.; Funari, V.; Hyks, J.; Rasumssen, E.; Lederer, J. Technologies for the management of MSW incineration ashes from gas cleaning: New perspectives on recovery of secondary raw materials and circular economy. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 635, 526–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weibel, G.; Zappatini, A.; Wolffers, M.; Ringmann, S. Optimization of metal recovery from MSWI fly ash by acid leaching: Findings from laboratory- and industrial-scale experiments. Processes 2021, 9, 352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kanhar, A.H.; Chen, S.; Wang, F. Incineration fly ash and its treatment to possible utilization: A Review. Energies 2020, 13, 6681. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Millini, R.; Bellussi, G. Zeolite science and perspectives. In Zeolites in Catalysis: Properties and Applications; Cejka, J., Morris, R.E., Nachtigall, P., Eds.; RSC Catalysis Series No. 28; The Royal Society of Chemistry: London, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Ray, R.L.; Sheppard, R.A. Occurrence of zeolites in sedimentary rocks: An overview, in Natural Zeolites: Occurrence, Properties, Applications. Rev. Miner. Geochem. 2001, 45, 17–34. [Google Scholar]
- MgBemere, H.E.; Ekpe, I.C.; Lawal, G.I. Zeolite synthesis, characterizations, and application areas—A review. Int. Res. J. Environ. Sci. 2017, 6, 45–59. [Google Scholar]
- Khaleque, A.; Alam, M.M.; Hoque, M.; Mondal, S.; Haider, J.B.; Xuc, B.; Johir, M.A.H.; Karmakar, A.K.; Zhoud, J.L.; Ahmedb, M.B.; et al. Zeolite synthesis from low-cost materials and environmental applications: A review. Environ. Adv. 2020, 2, 100019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cho, B.H.; Nam, B.H.; An, J.; Youn, H. Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (MSWI) Ashes as Construction Materials—A Review. Materials 2020, 13, 3143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perego, C.; Bagatin, R.; Tagliabue, M.; Vignola, R. Zeolites and related mesoporous materials for multi-talented environmental solutions. Microp. Mesop. Mater. 2013, 166, 37–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karlfeldt Fedje, K.; Rauch, S.; Cho, P.; Steenari, B.M. Element associations in ash from waste combustion in fluidized bed. Waste Manag. 2010, 30, 1273–1279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Witek-Krowiak, A.; Gorazda, K.; Szopa, D.; Trzaska, K.; Moustakas, K.; Chojnacka, K. Phosphorus recovery from wastewater and bio-based waste: An overview. Bioeng 2022, 13, 13474–13506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cordell, D. Peak phosphorous and the role of P recovery in achieving food security. In Source Separation and Decentralization for Wastewater Management; Larsen, T.A., Udert, K.M., Lienert, J., Eds.; IWA Publishing: London, UK, 2013; pp. 29–44. [Google Scholar]
- Jenssen, T.K.; Kongshaug, G. Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Fertiliser Production; Proceeding, No. 509; The International Fertilizer Society: Paris, France, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- European Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council Concerning urban Wastewater Treatment (Recast) 541. 2022. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/proposal-revised-urban-wastewater-treatment-directive_en (accessed on 25 September 2023).
- van Eekert, M.; Weijma, J.; Verdoes, N.; de Buisonjé, F.; Reitsma, B.; van den Bulk, J.; van Gastel, J. Explorative Research on Innovative Nitrogen Recovery; STOWA Report 51; Stichting Toegepast Onderzoek Waterbeheer: Amersfoort, The Netherlands, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Ganrot, Z. Use of zeolites for improved nutrient recovery from decentralized domestic wastewater. In Handbook of Natural Zeolites; Vassilis, J., Antonis, A.Z., Eds.; Bentham Science Publishers: Singapore, 2012; Chapter 17; pp. 410–435. [Google Scholar]
- Bandala, E.R.; Liu, A.; Wijesiri, B.; Zeidman, A.B.; Goonetilleke, A. Emerging materials and technologies for landfill leachate treatment: A critical review. Environ. Pollut. 2021, 291, 118133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ferrel-Luna, R.; García-Arreola, M.E.; González-Rodríguez, L.M.; Oredo-Cancino, M.; Escárcega-González, C.E.; de Haro-Del Río, D.A. Reducing toxic element leaching in mine tailings with natural zeolite clinoptilolite. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Helfferich, F. Ion Exchange; Dover Publishing: New York, NY, USA, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Inglezakis, V.J. The concept of “capacity” in zeolite ion-exchange systems. J. Colloid. Inter. Sci. 2005, 281, 68–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coombs, D.S.; Alberti, A.; Armbruster, T.; Artioli, G.; Colella, C.; Galli, E.; Grice, J.D.; Liebau, F.; Mandarino, J.A.; Minato, H.; et al. Recommended nomenclature for zeolite minerals: Report of the subcommittee on zeolites of the international mineralogical association, commission on new minerals and mineral names. Can. Mineral. 1997, 35, 1571–1606. [Google Scholar]
- Derbe, T.; Temesgen, S.; Bitew, M. A Short Review on Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications of Zeolites. Hindawi Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 2021, 6637898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wan, W.; Su, J.; Zou, X.D.; Wilhammar, T. Transmission electron microscopy as an important tool for characterization of zeolite structures. Inorg. Chem. Front. 2018, 5, 2836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsai, Y.T.; Huang, E.; Li, Y.; Hung, H.; Jiang, J.; Liu, T.; Fang, J.; Chen, H. Raman Spectroscopic Characteristics of Zeolite Group Minerals. Minerals 2021, 11, 167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, T.; Luo, S.; Tompsett, G.A.; Timko, M.T.; Fan, W.; Auerbach, S.M. Critical Role of Tricyclic Bridges Including Neighboring Rings for Understanding Raman Spectra of Zeolites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019, 141, 20318–20324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- van Vreeswijk, S.H.; Weckhuysen, B.M. Emerging analytical methods to characterize zeolite-based materials. Natl. Sci. Rev. 2022, 9, nwac047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barelocher, C.; McCuster, L.B.; Olson, H.D. Atlas of Zeolite Framework Types, 6th ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Yu, J. Synthesis of zeolites. In Introduction to Zeolite Science and Practice, 3rd ed.; Čejka, J., Hv, B., Corma, A., Schüth, F., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2007; Volume 168, Chapter 3. [Google Scholar]
- Brännvall, E.; Kumpiene, J. Fly ash in landfill top covers—A review. Environ. Sci. Proc. Impacts 2016, 18, 11–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cundy, C.S.; Cox, P.A. The hydrothermal synthesis of zeolites: Precursors, intermediates and reaction mechanism. Microp. Mesop. Mater. 2005, 82, 1–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Na, K.; Choi, M.; Ryoo, R. Recent advances in the synthesis of hierarchically nanoporous zeolites. Microp. Mesop. Mater. 2013, 166, 3–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, M.; Ma, Q.; Lin, Q.; Chang, J.; Bao, W.; Ma, M. Combined modification of fly ash with Ca(OH)2/Na2FeO4 and its adsorption of Methyl orange. App. Surf. Sci. 2015, 359, 323–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perez-Ramırez, J.; Verboekend, D.; Bonilla, A.; Abello, S. Zeolite catalysts with tunable hierarchy factor by pore-growth moderators. Adv. Funct. Mater 2009, 19, 3972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ivanova, I.I.; Knyazeva, E.E. Micro–mesoporous materials obtained by zeolite recrystallization: Synthesis, characterization and catalytic applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2013, 42, 3671–3688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanache, L.E.; Sundermann, L.; Lebeau, B.; Toufaily, J.; Hamieh, T.; Daou, T.J. Surfactant-modified MFI-type nanozeolites: Super-adsorbents for nitrate removal from contaminated water. Microp. Mesop. Mater. 2019, 283, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schick, J.; Daou, T.J.; Caullet, P.; Paillaud, J.L.; Patarin, J.; Mangold-Callarec, C. Surfactant-modified MFI nanosheets: A high capacity anion-exchanger. Chem. Comm. 2011, 47, 902–904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanache, L.E.; Lebeau, B.; Nouali, H.; Toufaily, J.; Hamieh, T.; Daou, T.J. Performance of surfactant-modified *BEA-type zeolite nanosponges for the removal of nitrate in contaminated water: Effect of the external surface. J. Hazard. Mater. 2019, 364, 206–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mao, Y.; Wu, H.; Wang, W.; Jia, M.; Che, X. Pretreatment of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash and preparation of solid waste source sulphoaluminate cementitious material. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020, 385, 121580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, Y.; Cui, R.; Yang, T.; Zhai, Z.; Li, R. Distribution characteristics of heavy metals in different size fly ash from a sewage sludge circulating fluidized bed incinerator. Energy Fuels 2017, 31, 2044–2051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fabricius, A.-L.; Renner, M.; Voss, M.; Funk, M.; Perfoll, A.; Gehring, F.; Graf, R.; Fromm, S.; Duester, L. Municipal waste incineration fly ashes: From a multi-element approach to market potential evaluation. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2020, 32, 88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bodénan, F.; Deniard, P. Characterization of flue gas cleaning residues from European solid waste incinerators: Assessment of various Ca-based sorbent processes. Chemosphere 2003, 51, 335–347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chiang, K.-Y.; Jih, J.-C.; Chien, M.-D. The acid extraction of metals from municipal solid waste incinerator products. Hydrometallurgy 2008, 93, 16–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, J.; Hao, Q.; Chen, J.; Hu, M.; Tu, T.; Jiang, C. Distribution characteristics and comparison of chemical stabilization ways of heavy metals from MSW incineration fly ashes. Waste Manag. 2020, 113, 488–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saakshy, K.; Singh, A.B.; Gupta Sharma, A.K. Fly ash as low cost adsorbent for treatment of effluent of handmade paper industry-Kinetic and modelling studies for direct black dye. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 112, 1227–1240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wesche, K. Fly Ash in Concrete Properties and Performance; RILEM Report 7; International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories: France; London, UK, 1991; p. 356. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, Z.; Lu, S.; Tang, M.; Ding, J.; Buekens, A.; Yang, J.; Qiu, Q.; Yan, J. Mechanical activation of fly ash from MSWI for utilization in cementitious materials. Waste Manag. 2019, 88, 182–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fan, X.F.; Yuan, R.; Gan, M.; Ji, Z.; Sun, Z. Subcritical hydrothermal treatment of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: A review. Sci. Total Environ. 2023, 865, 160745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, S.Y.; Tanaka, N.; Matsuto, T.; Tojo, Y. Leaching behaviour of elements and evaluation of pre-treatment methods for municipal solid waste incinerator residues in column leaching tests. Waste Manag. Res. 2005, 23, 220–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kasina, M.; Kowalski, P.R.; Kajdas, B.; Michalik, M. Assessment of valuable and critical elements recovery potential in ashes from processes of solid municipal waste and sewage sludge thermal treatment. Resources 2020, 9, 131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fan, Y.; Zhang, F.-S.; Zhu, J.; Liu, Z. Effective utilization of waste ash from MSW and coal co-combustion power plant—Zeolite synthesis. J. Hazard. Mater. 2008, 153, 382–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ohbuchi, A.; Koike, Y.; Nakamura, T. Crystal morphology analysis for heavy elements in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash and bottom ash by X-ray characterization techniques. Anal. Sci. 2020, 6, 471–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Siddique, R. Utilization of municipal solid waste (MSW) ash in cement and mortar. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2010, 54, 1037–1047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kowalski, P.R.; Kasina, M.; Michalik, M. Metallic elements fractionation in municipal solid waste incineration residues. Energy Procedia 2016, 97, 31–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weibel, G.; Eggenberger, U.; Schlumberger, S.; Mäder, U.K. Chemical associations and mobilization of heavy metals in fly ash from municipal solid waste incineration. Waste Manag. 2017, 62, 147–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rani, D.A.; Boccaccini, A.R.; Deegan, D.; Cheeseman, C.R. Air pollution control residues from waste incineration: Current UK situation and assessment of alternative technologies. Waste Manag. 2008, 28, 2279–2292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Saikia, N.; Kato, S.; Kojima, T. Production of cement clinkers from municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash. Waste Manag. 2007, 27, 1178–1189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wan, X.; Wang, W.; Ye, T.; Guo, Y.; Gao, X. A study on the chemical and mineralogical characterization of MSWI fly ash using a sequential extraction procedure. J. Hazard. Mater. 2006, 134, 197–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IAWG (International Ash Working Group); Chandler, A.J.; Eighmy, T.T.; Hartlén, J.; Hjelmar, O.; Kosson, D.S.; Sawell, S.E.; van der Sloot, H.; Vehlow, J. Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator Residues; Studies in Environmental Science; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1997; Volume 67. [Google Scholar]
- Zhao, Y.; Li, H. Understanding municipal solid waste production and diversion factors utilizing deep-learning methods. Util. Policy 2023, 83, 101612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Joseph, A.M.; Snellings, R.; van den Heede, P.; Matthys, S.; de Belie, N. The use of municipal solid waste incineration ash in various building materials: A Belgian Point of View. Materials 2018, 11, 141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deng, L.; Xu, Q.; Wu, H. Synthesis of zeolite-like material by hydrothermal and fusion methods using municipal solid waste fly ash. Proc. Environ. Sci. 2016, 31, 662–667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eighmy, T.T.; Eusden, J.D.; Krzanowski, J.E.; Domiago, D.S.; Stampfli, D.; Martin, P.M.; Erickson, P.M. Comprehensive approach toward understanding element speciation and leaching behavior in municipal solid waste incineration electrostatic precipitator ash. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1995, 29, 629–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hjelmar, O. Disposal strategies for municipal solid waste incineration residues. J. Hazard. Mater. 1996, 47, 345–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Forestier, L.L.; Libourel, G. Characterization of flue gas residues from municipal solid waste combustors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998, 32, 2250–2256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quina, M.J.; Bordado, J.C.; Quinta-Ferreira, R.M. Treatment and use of air pollution control residues from MSW incineration: An overview. Waste Manag. 2008, 28, 2097–2121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Song, G.J.; Kim, K.; Seo, Y.; Kim, S. Characteristics of ashes from different locations at the MSW incinerator equipped with various air pollution control devices. Waste Manag. 2004, 24, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vavva, C.; Voutsas, E.; Magoulas, K. Process development for chemical stabilization of fly ash from municipal solid waste incineration. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 2017, 125, 57–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, X.; Chen, Q.; Zhou, Y.; Tyrer, M.; Yu, Y. Stabilization of heavy metals in MSWI fly ash using silica fume. Waste Manag. 2014, 34, 2494–2504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karlfeldt, K.; Steenari, B.-M. Assessment of metal mobility in MSW incineration ashes using water as the reagent. Fuel 2007, 86, 1983–1993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alba, N.; Gasso, S.; Lacorte, T.; Baldasano, J.M. Characterization of municipal solid waste incineration residues from facilities with different air pollution control systems. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 1997, 47, 1170–1179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romero, M.; Rincon, J.M.; Rawlings, R.D.; Boccaccini, A.R. Use of vitrified urban incinerator waste as raw material for production of sintered glass–ceramics. Mat. Res. Bull. 2001, 36, 383–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, T.W.; Chen, Y.S. Characterisation of glass–ceramics made from incinerator fly ash. Ceram. Intern. 2004, 30, 343–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miyake, M.; Tamura, C.; Matsuda, M. Resource recovery of waste incineration fly ash: Synthesis of zeolites a and p. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2002, 85, 1873–1875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, G.C.C.; Yang, T. Synthesis of zeolites from municipal incinerator fly ash. J. Hazard. Mater. 1998, 62, 75–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bac, B.H.; Song, Y.; Moon, Y.; Kim, M.H.; Kang, I.M. Effective utilization of incinerated municipal solid waste incineration ash: Zeolitic material synthesis and silica extraction. Waste Manag. Res. 2010, 28, 714–722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, Y.-J.; Chen, J.-C. Resourcization and valorization of waste incineration fly ash for the synthesis of zeolite and applications. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 106549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qiu, Q.; Jiang, X.; Lv, G.; Lu, S.; Ni, M. Stabilization of heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash in circulating fluidized bed by microwave-assisted hydrothermal treatment with additives. Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 7588–7595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qiu, Q.; Jiang, X.; Chen, Z.; Lu, S.; Ni, M. Microwave-assisted hydrothermal treatment with soluble phosphate added for heavy metals solidification in MSWI fly ash. Energy Fuels 2017, 31, 5222–5232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Q.; Long, L.; Liu, X.; Jiang, X.; Chi, Y.; Yan, J.; Zhao, X.; Kong, L. Low-toxic zeolite fabricated from municipal solid waste incineration fly ash via microwave-assisted hydrothermal process with fusion pretreatment. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 2020, 22, 1196–1207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, K.-S.; Chiang, K.-Y.; Lin, K.-L.; Sun, C.-J. Effects of a water-extraction process on heavy metal behavior in municipal solid waste incinerator fly ash. Hydrometallurgy 2001, 62, 73–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chuai, X.; Yang, Q.; Zhang, T.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhao, G.; Cui, X.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, T.; ** technology and solutions to overcome diffusion limitations. Catalysts 2018, 8, 163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gleichmann, K.; Unger, B.; Brandt, A. Manufacturing of industrial zeolite molecular sieves. Chem. Ing. Technol. 2017, 89, 851–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amir, C.; Mohammad, K.; Javad, A.S.; Sareh, A.A. Effect of bentonite binder on adsorption and cation exchange properties of granulated nano nay zeolite. Adv. Mater. Res. 2011, 335–336, 423–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tchobanoglous, G.; Burton, F.L.; Stensel, H.D. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th ed.; Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2003; pp. 1138–1162. [Google Scholar]
- Loiola, A.R.; Bessa, R.A.; Oliveira, C.P.; Freitas, A.D.L.; Soares, S.A.; Bohn, F.; Pergher, S.B.C. Magnetic zeolite composites: Classification, synthesis routes, and technological applications. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2022, 560, 169651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, A.-H.; Salabas, E.L.; Schüth, F. Magnetic nanoparticles: Synthesis, protection, functionalization, and application. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 1222–1244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kharisov, B.I.; Dias, H.V.R.; Kharissova, O.V.; Jiménez-Pérez, V.M.; Pérez, B.O.; Flores, B.M. Iron-containing nanomaterials: Synthesis, properties, and environmental applications. RSC Adv. 2012, 2, 9325–9358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Popescu, R.C.; Andronescu, E.; Vasile, B.S. Recent advances in magnetite nanoparticle functionalization for nanomedicine. Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 1791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Phouthavong, V.; Yan, R.; Nijpanich, S.; Hagio, T.; Ichino, R.; Kong, L.; Li, L. Magnetic adsorbents for wastewater treatment: Advancements in their synthesis methods. Materials 2022, 15, 1053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cataldo, E.; Salvi, L.; Paoli, F.; Fucile, M.; Masciandaro, G.; Manzi, D.; Masini, C.M.; Mattii, G.B. Application of zeolites in agriculture and other potential uses: A review. Agronomy 2021, 11, 1547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pond, W.G.; Mumpton, F.A. Zeo-Agriculture—Use of Natural Zeolites in Agriculture and Aquaculture; Westview Press: Brockport, NY, USA, 1984. [Google Scholar]
- Li, Z. Use of surfactant-modified zeolite as fertilizer carriers to control nitrate release. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2003, 61, 181–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Filatova, E.G.; Pozhidaev, Y.N. Development of natural zeolites regeneration scheme. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2020, 459, 032035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Prigent, B.; Geißen, S.-U. Adsorption and regenerative oxidation of trichlorophenol with synthetic zeolite: Ozone dosage and its influence on adsorption performance. Chemosphere 2016, 154, 132–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lubensky, J.; Ellersdorfer, M.; Stocker, K. Ammonium recovery from model solutions and sludge liquor with a combined ion exchange and air strip** process. J. Water Process Eng. 2019, 32, 100909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malovanyy, A.; Sakalova, H.; Yatchyshyn, Y.; Plaza, E.; Malovanyy, M. Concentration of ammonium from municipal wastewater using ion exchange process. Desalination 2013, 329, 93–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salvador, F.; Martin-Sanchez, N.; Sanchez-Hernandez, R.; Sanchez-Montero, M.J.; Izquierdo, C. Regeneration of carbonaceous adsorbents. Part I: Thermal Regeneration. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2015, 202, 259–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sireesha, S.; Agarwal, A.; Sopanrao, K.S.; Sreedhar, L.; Anitha, K.L. Modified coal fly ash as a low-cost, efficient, green, and stable adsorbent for heavy metal removal from aqueous solution. Biomass Convers. Biorefinery 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Batjargal, T.; Yang, J.-S.; Kim, D.-H.; Baek, K. Removal characteristics of Cd(II), Cu(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) by natural Mongolian zeolite through batch and column experiments. Sep. Sci. Technol. 2011, 46, 1313–1320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bolan, N.S.; Mowatt, C.; Adriano, D.C.; Blennerhassett, J.D. Removal of ammonium ions from fellmongery effluent by zeolite. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2003, 34, 1861–1872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, M.; Zhang, H.; Xu, D.; Han, L.; Niu, D.; Tian, B.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, L.; Wu, W. Removal of ammonium from aqueous solutions using zeolite synthesized from fly ash by a fusion method. Desalination 2011, 271, 111–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karadag, D.; Tok, S.; Akgul, E.; Turan, M.; Ozturk, M.; Demir, A. Ammonium removal from sanitary landfill leachate using natural G¨ordes clinoptilolite. J. Hazard. Mater. 2008, 153, 60–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lorick, D.; Ahlström, M.; Grimvall, A.; Harder, R. Effectiveness of struvite precipitation and ammonia strip** for recovery of phosphorus and nitrogen from anaerobic digestate: A systematic review. Environ. Evid. 2020, 9, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, J.-C.; Shang, C. Air strip**. In Handbook of Environmental Engineering. Vol. 4: Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Processes; Wang, L.L., Hung, Y.-T., Shammas, N.K., Eds.; The Humana Press Inc.: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Katehis, D.; Diyamandoglu, V.; Fillos, J. Strip** and recovery of ammonia from centrate of anaerobically digested biosolids at elevated temperatures. Water Environ. Res. 1998, 70, 231–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Değermenci, N.; Yildiz, E. Ammonia strip** using a continuous flow jet loop reactor: Mass transfer of ammonia and effect on strip** performance of influent ammonia concentration, hydraulic retention time, temperature, and air flow rate. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 31462–31469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guisnet, M.; Ribeiro, F.R. Chapter 1 Deactivation and regenaration of solid catalysts. In Deactivation and Regeneration of Zeolite Catalysts; Catalytic Science Series; Guisnet, M., Robeiro, F.R., Eds.; Imperial College Press: London, UK, 2011; Volume 9, p. 360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, S.; Popovich, J.; Zhang, W.; Ganser, C.; Hadel, S.E.; Seo, D.-K. Superior ion release properties and antibacterial efficacy of nanostructured zeolites ion-exchanged with zinc, copper, and iron. RSC Adv. 2018, 8, 37949–37957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Daligaux, V.; Richard, R.; Manero, M.-H. Deactivation and Regeneration of Zeolite Catalysts Used in Pyrolysis of PlasticWastes—A Process and Analytical Review. Catalysts 2021, 11, 770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guisnet, M.; Ribeiro, F.R. Fundamental description of deactivation and regeneration of acid zeolites. Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal. 1994, 88, 53–68. [Google Scholar]
- Salvador, F.; Martin-Sanchez, N.; Sanchez-Hernandez, R.; Sanchez-Montero, M.J.; Izquierdo, C. Regeneration of carbonaceous adsorbents. Part II: Chemical, Microbiological and Vacuum Regeneration. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2015, 202, 277–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, S.; Li, H.; **e, S.; Liu, S.; Xu, L. Physical and chemical regeneration of zeolitic adsorbents for dye removal in wastewater treatment. Chemosphere 2006, 65, 82–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.Y.; Shi, T.B.; Jia, C.Z.; Ji, W.J.; Chen, Y.; He, M.Y. Adsorptive removal of aromatic organosulfur compounds over the modified Na-Y zeolites. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2008, 82, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fujita, H.; Izumi, J.; Sagehashi, M.; Fujii, T.; Sakoda, A. Decomposition of trichloroethene on ozone-adsorbed high silica zeolites. Water Res. 2004, 38, 166–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, D.-G.; Kim, J.-H.; Lee, C.-H. Adsorption and thermal regeneration of acetone and toluene vapors in dealuminated Y-zeolite bed. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2011, 77, 312–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simancas, R.; Chokkalingam, A.; Elangovan, S.P.; Liu, Z.; Sano, T.; Iyoki, K.; Wakihara, T.; Okubo, T. Recent progress in the improvement of hydrothermal stability of zeolites. Chem. Sci. 2021, 12, 7677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bathen, D. Physical waves in adsorption technology—An overview. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2003, 33, 163–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdelsayed, V.; Shekhawat, D.; Tempke, R.S. Zeolites interactions with microwaves during methane non-oxidative coupling. Catal. Today 2021, 365, 88–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Delgado, L.; Catarino, A.S.; Eder, P.; Litten, D.; Luo, Z.; Villanueva, A. End-of-Waste Criteria; EUR—Scientific and Technical Research series; European Commission Joint Research Centre: Seville, Spain, 2009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grand View Research, Market Analysis Report: Zeolite Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Application (Catalyst, Adsorbent, Detergent Builder), By Product (Natural, Synthetic), By Region (North America, Europe, APAC, CSA, MEA), And Segment Forecasts, 2022–2030. Grand View Research, India & US, Report 978-1-68038-601-1, p. 114. Available online: https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/zeolites-market (accessed on 25 October 2023).
- Markets and Markets, Market Research Report: Zeolites Market by Type (Natural, Synthetic), Function (Ion-Exchange, Catalyst, Molecular Sieve), Synthetic Zeolites Application (Detergent, Catalyst), Natural Zeolites Application, and Regional-Global Forecast to 2026. Markets and Markets, India, Report CH 8006. 2021. Available online: https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/zeolites-market-76442083.html (accessed on 25 October 2023).
- Coherent Market Insights (2023) Nutrient Recycling Market. Coherent Market Insights, India, Report CM15972, p. 154. Available online: https://www.coherentmarketinsights.com/market-insight/nutrient-recycling-market-5972 (accessed on 25 October 2023).
Ref. | Al, Si Sources | Pre-Treatment | Hydrothermal Treatment | Products | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | In MSW-FA | BET | CEC | Initial Si/Al Ratio | Type | Type | Additives | L/S | Temp | Time | Zeolite | BET | CEC | ||
Si | Al | m2/g | meq/g | - | mL/g | °C | h | m2/g | meq/g | ||||||
[77] | MSW-FA | 9.5% SiO2 | 5.5% Al2O3 | N.S. | N.S. | 1.5 | DW, Cal 1, Acid 1, DI | Autoclave w/ST | 1–2 M NaOH | 25 | 60 | 20–30 | Zeolite A | N.S. | N.S. |
0.5–2 M NaOH | 25 | 100–120 | 20–48 | Zeolite P | N.S. | N.S. | |||||||||
[78] | MSW-FA (<75 µm, WMS) | 22.0% SiO2 | 10.2% Al2O3 | 2.54 | 0.078 | 1.9 | No | N.S. | 3.5 M NaOH | 5–15 | 130–190 | 24 | Gismondine | 45 | 0.8 |
6 M NaOH | Gmelinite | N.S. | 0.65 | ||||||||||||
[79] | MSW-FA (water-cooled) | 47.1% SiO2 | 12.4% Al2O3 | 0.5 | N.S. | 4 | Gr | Autoclave | 2 M NaOH | 30 | 200 | >24 | Zeolite-like | 54 | N.S. |
[65] | MSW-FA, WGP, Al2O3 powder | 0.3% Si | 2.2% Al | N.S. | 0.20 | 1 | No | Heater w/ST | 2.5 M NaOH | 10 | 60 | 24 | Zeolites Y, A and L (perlialite) | N.S. | 1.00 |
AF (1.2 g NaOH/g FA, 550 °C, 1 h) | Aging w/ST | WGP, Al2O3 powder | 10 | Room | 24 | - | - | ||||||||
CRY | No | - | 90 | 24 | Zeolite-like | N.S. | 1.00 | ||||||||
[80] | MSW-FA | 12.2% Si | 0.8% Al | 8.59 | N.S. | 40 | AF (1.5 g NaOH/g FA, 400 °C, 40 min) | HYD | DI | 100 | 105 | 24 | - | - | - |
Sealed reactor | 1.2% CTAB 2 | Filtrate | 105 | 24 | - | - | - | ||||||||
Cal | - | - | 550 °C | 3 | ZSM-23 | 651 | N.S. | ||||||||
[54] | MSW-FA and coal-FA | 45.5% SiO2 | 22.6% Al2O3 | N.S. | 0.64 | 1.8 | Gr, AF (1.2 g NaOH/g FA, 550 °C, 1 h) | Aging w/ST | DI | 9 | Room | 24 | - | - | - |
CRY | No | - | 90 | 6–10 | Zeolite X | 200 | 2.5 | ||||||||
≥130 | 14–18 | Zeolite HS | N.S. | N.S. | |||||||||||
[81] | MSW-FA | N.S. | N.S. | N.S. | N.S. | N.S. | No | MWA | DI, 1.5 mol NaH2PO4/kg FA | 2 | 200 | 1/6 | Zeolite-like | N.S. | N.S. |
[82] | MSW-FA | N.S. | N.S. | N.S. | N.S. | N.S. | No | MWA | 1 M Na2HPO4 | 3 | 150 | 1/3 | Zeolite-like | N.S. | N.S. |
[83] | MSW-FA | 4.3% Si | 2.4% Al | 0.023 | AF (2 g NaOH/g FA, 550 °C, 1 h) | MWA | DI | 3.3 | 100 | 0.5 | Zeolite-like | N.S. | 1.17 | ||
No | MWA | DI | 3.3 | 100 | 0.5 | Zeolite-like | N.S. | 0.43 |
Waste Material | Al2O3 | SiO2 | CaO |
---|---|---|---|
Aluminium scrap | Almet > 90–99% | ||
Aluminium dust | Altotal 25–40 Almet 15–25 | 6–11 | 1–4 |
Black aluminium dross | 42–88 | 1.3–14 | 0.6–1 |
White aluminium dross | 40–50 | ||
Spent Fluid Catalytic Cracking catalysts | 40–50 | 40–50 | 0–1 |
Coal combustion ashes | 15–40 | 40–60 | 3–15 |
Aluminium salt slag | 20–30 Almet 5–10 | 2–10 | |
Coal gasification ashes | 5–30 | 25–60 | 2–30 |
Liquid Crystal Displays glass panel | 15–25 | 50–75 | 0–7 |
MSW-FA | 5–24 | 12–41 | 15–50 |
Electric furnace steel reduction slag | 15–20 | 15–20 | 50–60 |
Lithium slag | 15–20 | 50–55 | 10–12 |
Red mud from the Bayer process (dried) | 10–20 | 3–50 | 2–40 |
Drilling and cutting muds (dried) | 5–20 | 30–70 | 2–30 |
MSW-BA | 1–20 | 5–50 | 10–50 |
Waste porcelain | 19 | 70 | 3 |
Blast furnace iron slag | 10–15 | 30–40 | 40–50 |
Wood ash | 0.5–15 | 10–70 | 10–70 |
Waste foundry sand | 0–15 | 75–90 | 0–5 |
Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) | 0.5–12 | 45–75 | 3–15 |
Zinc slag | 7–10 | 15–20 | 15–20 |
Electric furnace steel oxidation slag | 5–10 | 10–15 | 20–25 |
Structure | Chemistry | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zeolite | FTC | Window | Si/Al | Cation | CEC |
Å | mol/mol | - | meq/g | ||
Natural zeolites | |||||
Clinoptilolite | HEU | 3.1 × 7.5 | 4.0–5.7 | Na, K, Ca | 2.0–2.6 |
Chabazite | CHA | 3.8 | 1.4–4.0 | Na, K, Ca | 2.5–4.7 |
Phillipsite | PHI | 3.8 | 1.1–3.3 | Na, K, Ca | 2.9–5.6 |
Analcime | ANA | 1.6 × 4.2 | 1.5–2.8 | Na | 3.6–5.3 |
Erionite | ERI | 3.6 × 5.1 | 2.6–3.8 | Na, K, Ca | 2.7–3.4 |
Faujasite | FAU | 7.4 | 2.1–2.8 | Na, K, Mg | 3.0–3.4 |
Ferrierite | FER | 4.2 × 5.4 | 4.9–5.7 | Ca | 2.1–2.3 |
Heulandite | HEU | 3.1 × 7.5 | 4.0–6.2 | Na, K, Ca, Sr | 2.2–2.5 |
Laumontite | LAU | 6.5 × 7.0 | 1.9–2.4 | Na, K, Mg | 3.8–4.3 |
Synthetic zeolites | |||||
X | FAU | 7.4 | 1.0–1.5 | - | 2.7–6.0 |
Y | FAU | 7.4 | <3 | - | 3.9 |
Mordenite 1 | MOR | 6.5 × 7.0 | 4.0–5.7 | Na, K, Ca | 2.0–2.4 |
A | LTA | 4.1 × 4.5 | 1.0–3.2 | - | 3.9–5.3 |
NaP1 | GIS | 2.9 | 1.7–3.9 | - | 2.0 |
Zeolite | Source | Si/Al | BET | NH4+ Adsorption | CEC | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mol/mol | m2/g | mg NH4/g | meq/g | |||
Magnetic clinoptilolite | Natural | N.S. | 43.1 | 172 | N.S. | [150] |
Na-A | Natural | N.S. | 430 | 116 | N.S. | [151] |
Mechanically activated clinoptilolite | Natural | N.S. | 258 | 109 | N.S. | [151] |
NaP1 | Coal FA | 2.7 | 56.9 | 34.5 | 2.56 | [126] |
X, some A, P, and hydroxysodalite | Low-Ca coal FA | 6.0 | 27.0 | 23.8 | 2.79 | [146] |
P1 | Coal FA | 3.5 | 18.5 | 22.9 | N.S. | [148] |
NaOH-treated zeolite Australia | Natural | N.S. | N.S. | 19.5–20.0 | N.S. | [141] |
Clinoptilolite-Ca/-Na, Stilbite-Ca | Natural | 2.9 | 25.8 | 17.0 | N.S. | [149] |
Sodalite | Coal FA | N.S. | 15.5 | 16.0 | 2.92 | [145] |
NaP1, some analcime, chabazite | Coal FA | N.S. | N.S. | 13.7 | N.S. | [152] |
Zeolite Australia as received | Natural | 9.8 | N.S. | 8.6 | N.S. | [141] |
Na-X | Coal FA | 1.12 | 165 | 5.0 | 18 | [153] |
NaP1/Fe2O3 | Coal FA | 2.8 | 162 | 4.5 | 1.54 | [154] |
Gismondine | High Ca coal FA | 4.7 | 45.5 | 3.2 | 0.69 | [146] |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Vogelsang, C.; Umar, M. Municipal Solid Waste Fly Ash-Derived Zeolites as Adsorbents for the Recovery of Nutrients and Heavy Metals—A Review. Water 2023, 15, 3817. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213817
Vogelsang C, Umar M. Municipal Solid Waste Fly Ash-Derived Zeolites as Adsorbents for the Recovery of Nutrients and Heavy Metals—A Review. Water. 2023; 15(21):3817. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213817
Chicago/Turabian StyleVogelsang, Christian, and Muhammad Umar. 2023. "Municipal Solid Waste Fly Ash-Derived Zeolites as Adsorbents for the Recovery of Nutrients and Heavy Metals—A Review" Water 15, no. 21: 3817. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213817