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Review

Grape Pomace as a Renewable Natural Biosource of Value-Added Compounds with Potential Food Industrial Applications

by
Teresa Abreu
1,
Patrícia Sousa
1,
Jéssica Gonçalves
1,
Nance Hontman
1,
Juan Teixeira
2,
José S. Câmara
1,3 and
Rosa Perestrelo
1,*
1
CQM—Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
2
Justino’s Madeira Wines, S.A., Parque Industrial Da Cancela, Caniço, 9125-042 Santa Cruz, Portugal
3
Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências Exatas e Engenharia, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Beverages 2024, 10(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages10020045
Submission received: 7 May 2024 / Revised: 4 June 2024 / Accepted: 12 June 2024 / Published: 17 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Wine, Spirits and Oenological Products)
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Abstract

:
Growing consumer demand for environmentally conscious, sustainable, and helpful products has prompted scientists and industry experts worldwide to look for inventive approaches to mitigate the environmental impact, particularly concerning agricultural and industrial waste. Among the by-products of winemaking, grape pomace (skins, seeds, stems) has the potential to be economically valuable as it is rich in value-added compounds (e.g., phenolic compounds, fibers, flavonoids, anthocyanins, terpenoids) related to health (e.g., antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective effects) and technological issues (e.g., extraction of value-added compounds). These value-added compounds can be extracted using emerging green extraction techniques and then used in the food industry as preservatives, colorants, and for the formulation of functional foods, as well as in the development of smart food packaging. This review provides an overview of the value-added compounds identified in grape pomace, the emerging green extraction, and integrated approaches to extract value-added compounds based on the literature published in the last five years. The potential applications of these value-added compounds have been extensively researched for the food industry.

1. Introduction

According to the United Nations Organization (UNO) estimates, the world population will reach around 10 billion people in 2050. This fact, associated with constant and increasing climate changes and the decline in agricultural production areas due essentially to desertification, constitutes a problem on a global scale that challenges the food sector. In this context, and to minimize and prevent these outcomes and restrict the depletion of resources, the European Union (EU) plans to attain climate neutrality by 2050. The implementation of the circular economy’s doctrines is vital to achieving this goal, since the reuse, recycle, and reduce concepts are adopted to create a closed-loop ecosystem for efficient resource consumption and usage [1,2]. The wine industry is one of the agri-food sectors responsible for the elevated expenditure of natural resources (e.g., water) and for the generation of substantial volumes of residues (solid or liquid) around the world [3,4].
According to Oliveira et al. [5], 1000 kg of processed grapes results in approximately 750 L of wine, 130 kg of grape pomace, 60 kg of lees, and 1650 L of wastewater (Figure 1). Grape pomace, also known as grape marc, is degradable biomass that represents around 20–25% of the total mass of grapes [6] and thus comes out to around 8.49 million tons a year worldwide [7]. This winemaking by-product includes a mixture of peels (representing 43% of total grape pomace residue), seeds (23%), and stalks (25%) [8,9]. The management of this by-product is one of the main concerns of the wine industry, as the discard of grape pomace directly into landfills causes serious environmental issues, such as soil and groundwater contamination, the generation of unpleasant odors, the attraction of plant disease vectors (insects and flies), microbial contamination, and severe health risks to the aquatic and human populations due to its high chemical oxygen demand and biodegradable organic contents (e.g., tannins), among other parameters [9].
The chemical oxygen demand of nine different varieties of deseeded grape pomace was determined by El Achkar et al. [10], and the values ranged from 268 g to 591 g of O2/kg. In this sense, several studies have been carried out in the last decade to valorize grape pomace as a sustainable approach, which includes the extraction of value-added compounds (since only 30% to 40% of phenolic compounds from grapes were transferred to wine), energy production, animal feed, cosmetics, organic building components by destroying the biological substances in a rather severe way, among others [2,6,11]. It is an economical raw material that represents a rich source of bioactive compounds (Figure 1) such as phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, volatile organic compounds, fibers, proteins, minerals (e.g., potassium, iron), vitamins, tannins, lipids, lignocellulosic compounds, among others, suitable for human health-promoting effects as well as for industrial applications (e.g., pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food) [12].
Several studies have shown that these value-added compounds have antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antimicrobial, and anti-aging activities and can be used as potential candidates for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases and cancer, as well as the regulation of bile acid and lipid homeostasis [6,13]. The concentration of these phytochemicals is significantly influenced by the ripening stage, cultivation procedures, genetic factors, grape varieties, and climatic and geographical conditions [14,15]. However, grape pomace may also contain mycotoxins (e.g., ochratoxin A) and other health-damaging substances in addition to health-beneficial molecules [14]. For this reason, suitable, more environmentally friendly, and efficient extraction procedures can be optimized and developed to recover the maximum yield of value-added compounds without compromising the biological and physicochemical characteristics of the exhausted grape pomace [16].
This comprehensive literature review intends to explore recent achievements related to efficient and suitable approaches for the valorization of grape pomace and to report on its volatile and phenolic compounds with potential added value. The diversity of potential industrial applications to minimize waste and enhance the valorization of this by-product of the wine industry will be discussed. Although numerous reviews have been published related to the valorization of grape pomace, the current review distinguishes itself by providing a comprehensive review of value-added compounds identified in grape pomace, emerging green extraction technologies used in their extraction, and integrated valorization approaches, with a specific focus on potential food industrial applications. Unlike previous reviews that may have focused narrowly on either the extraction methods or the end products, this manuscript integrates these aspects to present a holistic view of the entire valorization process. Furthermore, this review highlights integrated strategies like cascade biorefineries and zero-waste processes, providing practical case studies such as the approaches proposed by Farru et al. [17] and Monari et al. [16]. By addressing gaps in the existing literature and offering a comprehensive framework for the valorization of grape pomace, this manuscript aims to provide valuable insights for researchers and industry professionals looking to implement sustainable and economically viable practices in the food industry.

2. Review Design

The design employed in this scientific study is based on a retrospective examination of research publications published between 2020 and 2024 that explored efficient suitable approaches for grape pomace valorization and prospective uses of value-added compounds in the food industry. For this purpose, the bibliographic databases Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect were used to identify and select publications. These platforms were chosen because of their extensive coverage of journals. The criteria used to select the articles were the title, abstract, keywords, and the year of publication reflecting the most recent advancements in the industrial application of grape pomace. The following keywords were considered in the current research: “grape pomace”, “grape marc”, “grape byproduct”, “added-value compounds”, “phenolic compounds”, “Volatiles”, “emerging extraction techniques”, “food industrial applications”. Wildcards (*, $, among others), operators, and Boolean (OR, AND) were also applied to obtain more exact results.

3. Efficient and Sustainable Approaches for Grape Pomace Valorization

3.1. Biological Conversion

In the case of grape pomace, biological conversions such as enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and anaerobic digestion appear to be suitable approaches for the production of biofertilizers and/or bioenergy (Figure 2). Enzymatic hydrolysis is the breakdown of macromolecules (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) of grape pomace in the presence of enzymes (e.g., cellulase, pectinase, tanninase, glucoamylase, protease) that promote their cleavage of bonds following its reaction with water to generate reducing sugar hydrolysate, which can be used as a substrate by fermentation organisms or converted into biofuels by microorganisms [3]. Filippi et al. [18] proposed a new process to convert grape pomace and stalks into a highly antioxidant extract and bio-based succinic acid. The substrates were enzymatically hydrolyzed to a high-sugar hydrolysate after pre-treatment with acidic and alkaline solutions. Actinobacillus succinogenes can effectively utilize the free sugars in the hydrolysate as a substrate for the synthesis of succinic acid, which has various applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and agricultural industries. On the other hand, the highest carbohydrate content in grape pomace represents a suitable renewable lignocellulosic biomass source for biofuel production [2]. A new and integrated process to fully explore grape pomace for biochemical production and recovery of oil and phenolic compounds using pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) has been proposed by ** et al. [19]. In the context of biochemical production, the reducing sugars obtained from the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose were fermented to acetone, butanol, and ethanol by Clostridium beijerinckii after pre-treatment with an alkaline solution. Martínez-Avila et al. [20] proposed an integrated enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation for polyhydroxyalkanoates from agro-industrial residues, including grape pomace. The findings demonstrated that the use of hydrolyzed residues in fermentation significantly increases the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates compared to the residues alone.
On the other hand, to operate in an ecologically favorable and economical manner, lignocellulosic wastes, such as those found in grape pomace, appear to be important feedstocks for methane (CH4) generation through anaerobic digestion, supporting the transition to renewable green energy sources [21]. Nevertheless, this biological conversion represents the worst environmental outline in terms of carbon footprint (450 kg CO2 eq per ton of biowaste) due to CH4 emissions. On the other hand, considering the advantages of biogas (around 70% CH4 and 30% CO2), the carbon footprint of this alternative is almost equal to that of incineration [22]. At the laboratory scale, the anaerobic digestion of grape pomace from the Pedro ** to maintain healthy blood sugar and cholesterol levels.

4.3. Flavor Enhancers

Grape pomace extracts are recognized for their ability to impart distinctive flavors and aromas to food products, enriching their sensory attributes and increasing consumer acceptance. This potential is attributed to the presence of various VOCs within the pomace in grape pomace, which contribute to its flavor profile; moreover, due to their low odor threshold, they may offer new opportunities for flavor modulation in the food industry, thus contributing to the sustainable use of resource utilization [50,68]. Table 2 summarizes the VOCs identified in grape pomace obtained from different Vitis vinifera L. grapes using headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography (HS-SPME/GC-MS).
For instance, the VOCs identified in wine by-products by Câmara et al. [68] can be used as additives to enhance the organoleptic characteristics of fish feed. In addition, specific VOMs such as benzyl alcohol and 2-phenyl ethanol are often utilized as flavoring agents in different beverages and food products (e.g., bakery products and sweets) [50], due to their low odor threshold.

4.4. Natural Colorants

Anthocyanins, tocopherols, carotenoids, and other pigments present in grape pomace can be used as natural colorants in food and beverage applications, replacing synthetic additives, and their color can change depending on the pH of the medium. Nevertheless, the main studies reported in the literature have focused on the extraction of anthocyanins from grape pomace (84.4–131 mg anthocyanins/100 g) [4]. The use of anthocyanins as food colors in beverages, jams, sweets, ice creams, and medicines is now permitted by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) [12]. Because of this characteristic, several food manufacturers have started to use natural anthocyanins instead of synthetic dyes to color food ingredients [53]. It is known that the color of anthocyanins can change depending on the pH of the medium and that their colors can remain stable after acetylation, polymerization, and condensation processes [70]. Nogueira et al. [71] proposed arrowroot starch films containing anthocyanin-rich grape pomace extract for several applications, including color migration for food simulants and fish meat freshness testing. The developed film changes color in different pH buffer solutions, from pink at pH 2 to light blue at pH 7 and slightly yellowish green at pH 10. After 96 h of storage at 25 °C, the composite films changed color from reddish pink to slightly green, indicating fish meat freshness. Moreover, Souza Mesquita et al. [72] used eutectic solvents with potential health benefits, such as those based on vitamins, to recover anthocyanins from grape pomace, and the extracted anthocyanins were loaded onto silicon dioxide (SiO2) and tested for thermal stability at different temperatures. The data showed that this strategy also enhanced the stability of the pigments at high temperatures, thus contributing to the valorization of grape pomace by extracting natural pigments. On the other hand, Romanini et al. [73] microencapsulate anthocyanins from grape pomace extract in a combination of maltodextrin and xanthan gum and use gelatin to assess the effect of this process on color stability. The results showed that encapsulation maintained the stability of anthocyanins in grape pomace extract under different conditions (e.g., temperature, absence, presence of light), resulting in a longer half-life compared to the control (isolated extract). In this sense, EFSA’s approval of anthocyanins as food colors has significant implications for the wider use of encapsulated natural colors across the food industry and the promotion of innovation.

4.5. Functional Ingredients in Foods

In addition to its nutritional importance, grape pomace extract can certainly be utilized as a functional component in foods and beverages to provide health benefits [65,74,75,76], as can be observed in Table 3. The influence of grape pomace powder on the chemical, technological, and sensory characteristics of muffins was assessed by Troilo et al. [65], Baldán et al. [74], and Antoniolli et al. [77]. These studies concluded that grape pomace powder added to muffins can enhance their nutritional value by increasing the content of bioactive compounds (e.g., phenolic compounds, anthocyanins), as evidenced by the positive results obtained in the analysis of muffins and the acceptance of products containing grape pomace by consumers [65,74,77]. Milinčić et al. [76] investigated the physical and functional qualities of goat milk powders enhanced with grape pomace seed extract, and the results demonstrated that thermally treated enriched goat milk powders exhibited improved emulsifying properties and stability, making them promising ingredients for the formulation of functional food that require good emulsifying activity and stability. This research also revealed phenolic–protein interactions and changes in the secondary structure of milk proteins due to the presence of phenolic compounds and thermal treatment. On the other hand, Difonzo et al. [52] evaluated the influence of the addition of three different percentages of grape pomace in the formulation of pizza bases. These authors found that the addition of grape skins and seed flours to pizza bases resulted in increased fiber content and antioxidant activity, as well as significant differences were found in texture and volatile compounds depending on the type and percentage of grape flour added. For instance, Tolve et al. [78] fortified wheat bread with grape pomace powder, and the results demonstrated that this incorporation improved water absorption and quality score, reduced the softening degree of doughs, and modified the chemical composition and sensory attributes of the bread. In addition, the potential of grape pomace for the development of functional biscuits is demonstrated in another study by Olt et al. [79], in which the level of grape pomace powder was varied (10–20% w/w total wet dough). The data showed that this incorporation potentially improved oxidative stress, glucose, and fatty acid levels while maintaining good sensory quality. Nevertheless, most of them try to increase the antioxidant activity of the system or the total dietary fiber content, which will strengthen the protection of the different forms of fat that may be present in the food matrix from oxidation [8].

4.6. Prebiotic Potential

Numerous studies on the use of grape pomace in functional foods have led researchers to focus on the prebiotic potential of grape pomace and its components [8,91]. It is known that the encapsulation of phenolic compounds is a practical alternative to increase their bioaccessibility and bioavailability. A recent study evaluated the effects of a micro-encapsulated pomace extract added to coconut water on the growth of probiotic bacteria [92]. At a concentration of 2% (w/v), the extract appeared to have prebiotic potential, acting as both an antioxidant and an antibacterial agent. The findings showed a beneficial effect on the development of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, with no adverse effects on the sensory aspect in terms of aroma and flavor. In another investigation, maltodextrin and a grape pomace extract rich in value-added compounds were combined to form vesicles for intestinal transport [1]. The ability of these vesicles to produce Lactobacillus reuteri biofilm in vitro was demonstrated by their apparent ability to reduce hydrogen peroxide-induced damage to intestinal epithelial cells. Anghel et al. [93] investigated the effects of different drying methods on grape pomace and evaluated the potential antidiabetic effect of the extracts obtained. The data obtained demonstrated that anthocyanins from grape pomace have the potential to act as antidiabetic molecules and that the infrared drying method can be employed to protect the quality of GP puree inoculated with probiotic (Lactobacillus casei ssp. paracasei (L. casei 431®). Bordiga et al. [94] also showed the in vitro prebiotic potential of grape seed extracts; however, the results of the study showed that Lactobacillus acidophilus P18806 displayed different sensitivity to phenolic compounds; therefore, the purification of such extracts is considered crucial. However, the extraction of these bioactive compounds could also be valuable as they can be utilized to enhance the quality of food items or to replace synthetic commercial additives. A step in the right direction was taken when Meini et al. [38] investigated the solid-state fermentation of grape pomace using filamentous fungi, such as Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus oryzae, and, in particular, the effect of the process on the antioxidant and prebiotic activities of the extracts produced. The idea was based on the discovery that filamentous fungi can secrete hydrolytic enzymes that facilitate the release and extraction of phenolic compounds. The extracts obtained appeared to promote the development of probiotic Lactobacillus casei species. The simultaneous synthesis of enzymes such as cellulase, pectinase, and tannase, which may be recovered and used in industrial applications, is another benefit of this system, in addition to the production of grape pomace extracts with prebiotic and antioxidant activity.

5. Conclusions and Future Trends

The disposal or management of winemaking by-products (e.g., grape pomace, lees) is a serious concern for the wine industry. To overcome and/or mitigate environmental concerns, academics and industry experts worldwide have been investigating sustainable approaches to valorize this by-product by employing emerging techniques to isolate value-added phytochemicals and/or by applying biotechnological, mechanical, and chemical conversion.
Regarding the isolation and recovery of value-added compounds, emerging extraction procedures, such as SFE and ASE, appear to be sustainable approaches to reducing processing time, reducing environmental damage caused by toxic solvents and energy consumption, and increasing extraction yields compared to conventional techniques (Soxhlet, SLE). Nevertheless, these approaches to grape pomace management have generally been carried out individually, and, in this context, future investigations should be performed to integrate strategies to valorize the bulk organic matter after the extraction of valuable phytochemicals with promising benefits in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. To the best of our knowledge, there are few studies in the literature on integrated strategies for the valorization of grape pomace, but this represents an important approach for enhancing environmental sustainability, economic viability, and resource efficiency. They support the transition towards a circular economy by turning waste into valuable products and energy, fostering innovation, and creating new economic opportunities. Nevertheless, to fully implement these integrated approaches and enhance the economic competitiveness and resilience of the winemaking sector, it is important to enhance our understanding of each process, maybe by implementing them at a pilot scale.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.P. and J.S.C.; investigation, T.A., P.S., J.G. and N.H.; writing original draft preparation T.A., P.S., J.G. and R.P.; review and editing, R.P. and J.S.C.; visualization, T.A., R.P. and J.S.C.; supervision, J.T. and R.P.; funding acquisition J.S.C., J.T. and R.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) with Portuguese Government funds through the CQM Base Fund—UIDB/00674/2020 (DOI: 10.54499/UIDB/00674/2020) and Programmatic Fund—UIDP/00674/2020 (DOI 10.54499/UIDP/00674/2020), and by ARDITI-Agência Regional para o Desenvolvimento da Investigação Tecnologia e Inovação through funds from Região Autónoma da Madeira-Governo Regional. The authors also acknowledge the financial support from Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia and Madeira 14-2020 program to the Portuguese Mass Spectrometry Network through PROEQUIPRAM program, M14-20 M1420-01-0145-FEDER-000008. Teresa Abreu thanks PhD fellowships FCT 2022.11323. BDANA is supported by FCT.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Value-added compounds are presented in grape pomace.
Figure 1. Value-added compounds are presented in grape pomace.
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Figure 2. Efficient and sustainable approaches for grape pomace valorization. MAE—microwave-assisted extraction; PLE—pressurized liquid extraction; UAE—ultrasound-assisted extraction; UMAE—ultrasound-microwave-assisted extraction.
Figure 2. Efficient and sustainable approaches for grape pomace valorization. MAE—microwave-assisted extraction; PLE—pressurized liquid extraction; UAE—ultrasound-assisted extraction; UMAE—ultrasound-microwave-assisted extraction.
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Figure 3. Conventional and emerging extraction techniques are used to recover value-added compounds from grape pomace. MAE—microwave-assisted extraction; ME—maceration; SE—Sohxlet; PLE—pressurized liquid extraction; SPE—solid phase extraction; SFE—supercritical fluid extraction; UAE—ultrasound-assisted extraction; UMAE—ultrasound–microwave-assisted extraction.
Figure 3. Conventional and emerging extraction techniques are used to recover value-added compounds from grape pomace. MAE—microwave-assisted extraction; ME—maceration; SE—Sohxlet; PLE—pressurized liquid extraction; SPE—solid phase extraction; SFE—supercritical fluid extraction; UAE—ultrasound-assisted extraction; UMAE—ultrasound–microwave-assisted extraction.
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Figure 4. Potential industrial application of grape pomace.
Figure 4. Potential industrial application of grape pomace.
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Table 1. Phenolic compounds identified in grape pomace from different grape varieties.
Table 1. Phenolic compounds identified in grape pomace from different grape varieties.
Grape PomaceExtraction ProcedureAnalytical ApproachOutcomeRef
Cabernet SauvignonPLE: 40% (v/v) ethanol, 9 min, 5 cycles, 130 °C
Sonification: acetone/H2O/acetic acid 70/28/2%v/v		HPLCEY: 0.11 (sonification), 0.32 (PLE) g/g dw
TPC: 10.4–72.6 mg(GAE)/g dw
TA: 0.80–0.90 mg(C3GE)/g dw
TPCA: 7.68–11.30 mg(PB2E/g dw
TF: 10.5–50.3 mg(CAE)/g dw
DPPH: 36.2–76.1 mg(TE)g dw
ABTS: 66.9–109.3 mg(TE)g dw		[19]
MerlotLLE: S/L 1:50, 100:0, 80:20, 60:40, 40:60, 20:80, and 0:100% of ethanol: H2O v/v)HPLC-DADThe best TPC, TFC, and TA were attained with ethanol: H2O (40:60 v/v).
TPC: 649–2915 mg(GAE)/100 g dw
TFC: 254–1793 mg(CAE)/100 g dw
TA: 7.24–66.2 mg(C3GE)/100 g dw
PC: syringic acid (46.1 mg/100 g dw), quercetin (31.2), vanillic acid (35.4), gallic acid (36.0)		[45]
GarganegaSE: 75% acetone, S/L 1:5, 50 °C, 2 h
PLE: 10.6 g GP, 100 bar, 1 h, 80 °C, 75% (ethanol:H2O 50:50 v/v), 25% CO2, 8 g/min		HPLC-DADEY: 51.1 (SE), 60.8 (PLE) g/kg
TPC: 60.8–77.9 g(GAE)/kg dw
PC: catechin, epicatechin gallate, epicatechin, epigallocatechin, rutin		[16]
Feteasca Neagra, Merlot, Burgundy, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot NoirMAE: ethanol:H2O 50% g/g, S/S 1:3 g/g, 100 °C, 5 min, 13 psiUHPLC–ESI/HRMSTPC: 17.1–25.6 mg(GAE)/g dw
CAT: 17.7–20.7 mg(CAE)/g dw
TAN: 179–448 mg/g dw
TA: 26.8–156.6 mg(C3GE)/g dw
DPPH: 41.7–85.1 µM(TE)/g dw
PC: Quercetin (355–1445.7 mg/100 g dw), catechin (79.2–185.7), epicatechin (79.9–142.8), syringic acid (18.3–94.3), gallic acid (6.44–14.1), pinocembrin (0.81–45.4)		[34]
WhiteMAE: 10% (m/m) of GP, 10 min, 100 °C, 2.7 g of ChCl:LacA: H2O (36:39:25% v/v)HPLC-ESI-MS/MSEY: 135 mg proanthocyanidins/g dw (MAE), 126 mg/g dw (conventional maceration)
The extraction time was reduced from 1 h to 3.56 min.		[33]
Grape pomaceNADES-UMAE: ChCl:citric acid (2:1) with 30% H2O/DES (v/v) 50 °C, 2 h, 300 W (MAE), 50 W (US)HPLCEY: 1.77 mg/g dw
TPC: 2892 mg(GAE)/kg dw
ORAC: 2190 mM(TE)/g dw
PC: Malvidin-3-(6-O-p-coumaroyl) monoglucosides (1116 mg/kg dw), Malvidin-3-O-monoglucoside (556.8), catehin (266.6)		[46]
TannatUAE: 3 g of GP, 60 mL ethanol/H2O 1:1 v/vHPLCUAE extracts were 50% richer in TPC and TMAC than conventional extractions.
TPC: 7.8–77.6 mg(GAE)/g dw
TMAC:1.29–5.46 mg(C3GE)/g dw
TAC: 32.4–200.7 mg(TE)/g dw		[44]
Lacrima Di Morro d’Alba and VerdicchioUAE: 1 g of GP, 15 mL ethanol:H2O 70:30, v/v acidified HCl (0.1%), 40 KHz, 60 min, 25 °CHPLC-ESI-MS/MSTPC: 41.2–106.5 mg(GAE)/g dw
TFC: 27.7–38.2 mg(RE)/g dw
TA: 0.38–8.02 mg(C3GE)/g dw
DPPH: 82.9–303.4 mg(TRE)/g dw
PC: gallic acid (117.3–605.2 mg/kg dw), vanillic acid (200.4–713.6), quercetin (6–262.0), rutin (3.4–46.1), kaempferol (1.9–9), isorhamnetin (0.1–0.8)		[37]
MonastrellUAE: 100 mg of GP, 1 mL of methanol/formic acid/H2O (50:2:48, v/v/v), 60 minHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MSPC: Catechin (96.15 mg/kg dw), proanthocyanidin dimer (B-type) (84.60), proanthocyanidin dimer monogallate (45.04), epicatechin (42.0), proanthocyanidin dimer digallate (8.61), gallocatechin (7.99), catechin-gallocatechin (7.83)[47]
Red and whiteSE: 150 g of GP, 300 mL of ethanol/H2O 50:50 v/v, 40 °C, 15 minHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MSΣflavonols: nd–204.5 µM/g dw
Σanthocyanins: nd–57.7 µM/g dw
Σflavan-3-ols: 245–826 µM/g dw
Σ stilbenes: nd–1.06 µM/g dw		[48]
Aresta WhiteSFE: 0.1 kg GP, 8 MPa, 40 °C, 10% (w/w) ethanol/240 minHPLC-DAD-MSEY: 2.3 g/100 g dw
TPC: 2245 mg(GAE)/100 g dw
DPPH: 5154 mg(α-tocopherol)/100 g dw
TPCA: 0.994 g (CAE)/100 g dw
PC: cis-resveratrol glucoside (2297 μg/100 g dw), cis-coutaric acid (1841), trans-p-coumaric acid (897), and quercetin (659)		[32]
MerlotSFE: 3 g GP, 60°C 250 bar, flow rate 2 mL/min.
SLE: 5 g GP, 5 mL of 70% ethanol, 20 min		-SFE obtains a higher EY of all analytes compared to SLE, except for β-sitosterol and α-tocopherol
TPC: 570 µg(GAE)/g dw SFE, 650 µg(GAE)/g dw (SLE)
DPPH: 0.118 mM (TE)/g dw (SFE), 0.141 mM (TE)/g dw (SLE)		[31]
Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Malbec Pinot-Noir and MarselanEnzymatic extraction: pectinase, cellulase, tannase, 50 mM acetate buffer at S/L 1:10 (w/v)HPLC-DADBoth fungi increased the antioxidant activity of the extracts, reaching maximum values of 73.7 (A. niger) and 109 (A. oryzae) mM (TE)/100 g dw
TPC: 0.49 to 0.81 g (GAE)/100 g dw
TAC: 3.1 to 5.6 mM (TE)/100 g dw
PC: syringic acid (0.13–0.17 g/100 g dw, gallic acid (0.03–0.16), (+)-catechin (0.018–0.028)		[38]
Abbreviations: ABTS: 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid assay; C3GE: cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent; CAE: catechin equivalent; CAT: catechins; ChCl: choline chloride; LacA: lactic acid; NADES: natural deep eutectic solvents; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay; dw: dry weight; EY: extraction yield; GAE: gallic acid equivalent; GP: grape pomace; HPLC: high-performance liquid chromatography; HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS: high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with photodiode array detection-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry; HPLC-ESI-MS/MS: high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry; LLE: liquid–liquid extraction; MAE: microwave-assisted extraction; nd: not detected; PB2E: procyanidin B2 equivalent; PC: main phenolic compounds identified; PLE: pressurized liquid extraction; RE: rutin equivalent; ORAC: oxygen radical absorbance capacity; S/L: ratio solid/liquid (g/mL); SLE: solid–liquid extraction; S/S: ratio solid/solid (g/g); SE—solid-based extraction; TA: total anthocyanins; TAC: total antioxidant capacity; TAN: tannins; TE: trolox equivalent; TFC: total flavonoid content; TMAC: total monomeric anthocyanin content; TPC: total phenolic content; UAE: ultrasound-assisted extraction; UHPLC–ESI/HRMS: ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry.
Table 2. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) identified in grape pomace using headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography (HS-SPME/GC-MS).
Table 2. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) identified in grape pomace using headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography (HS-SPME/GC-MS).
Grape PomaceHS-SPME ExtractionAnalytical ApproachMain VOCsRef.
Tinta negra, Complexa, Verdelho, Malvasia roxa, Boal, Malvasia, Sercial, Terrantez, 2 g GP, 0.5 g NaCl, 5 mL of H2O, 40 °C, 45 min, DVB/CAR/PDMS fiberGC-MSEthyl acetate (0.23–47.3 µg/L)
Hexan-1-ol (1.33–25.5 µg/L)
(E)-2-hexenal (n.d.–8.60 µg/L)
3-Methyl butan-2-ol (0.02–8.18 µg/L)
Isoamyl acetate (0.02–6.32 µg/L)
Hexanal (0.64–6.16 µg/L)
Menthol (n.d.–3.64 µg/L)		[50]
Tinta Negra4 g GP, 2 g NaCl, 5 mL of H2O, 40 °C, 45 min, DVB/CAR/PDMS fiberGC-MSMethyl acetate (8.03 µg/L)
3-Hydroxy-2-butanone (5.97 µg/L)
Acetic acid (4.48 µg/L)
Methyl hexanoate (3.09 µg/L)		[68]
Chardonnay1 mL GP extract, 9 mL H2O, 2 g NaCl, 35 °C, 30 min, PDMS/DVB fiberGC-MS1-Butanol (0.81–0.96 µg/L)
1-Hexanol (1.58–9.25 µg/L)
(E)-2-hexen-1-ol (0.38–2.01 µg/L)
(E)-2-octen-1-ol (2.14–5.15 µg/L)
Benzyl alcohol (0.17–0.92 µg/L)
2-Phenyl ethanol (0.16–0.76 µg/L)
Geraniol (0.21–0.22 µg/L)		[69]
Abbreviations: HS-SPME—headspace-solid phase microextraction; GC-MS—gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; GP—grape pomace.
Table 3. Grape pomace as a valuable resource in the development of functional foods.
Table 3. Grape pomace as a valuable resource in the development of functional foods.
Food ProductAmount of Grape PomaceMain OutcomeRef
Biscuits10% to 20% (w/w) grape pomace powder (GPP)The integration of GPP on biscuits appeared to be an encouraging functional meal with the facility to alleviate oxidative stress and hyperglycemia.[79]
Bread5% (w/w) of GPPThe incorporation of GPP indicated a decrease in moisture content and a rise in anthocyanin levels.[80]
Bread2% (w/w) of GPPBread formulation with the incorporation of GPP produces the greatest results, as it allows for a product with a homogenous structure and improved volume.[81]
Bread5% and 10% (w/w) GPPFortification with GPP resulted in a significant increase in anthocyanins, lower starch hydrolysis, and predicted glycemic index.[82]
Breadsticks5 g and 10 g/100 g
of GPP		Fortification of breadsticks with GPP improved TPC and antioxidant activity, as well as affected the rheological properties of doughs.[66]
Breadsticks5 g and 10 g/100 g of GPPAntioxidant capacity within breadsticks declined over time, revealing that oxidation initiated and decreased antioxidant activities.[67]
Cereal bars10 g and 20 g of GPPThe fortified bars demonstrated alterations in properties, namely increased moisture, and soluble dietary fiber level.[83]
Gluten-free muffins108 g to 180 gThe addition of GPP improved the nutritional composition of the muffins as their content increased, emphasizing protein and crude fiber levels.[74]
Goat milk powders 0.2 mg to 0.6 mg grape pomace seed extract (GPSE)Functionally enhanced GPSE powders, exhibited remarkable emulsifying properties, positioning them as promising candidates for formulating new food products that need ideal emulsifying activity and stability.[76]
Jelly candy 1 g of grape pomaceThe incorporation of grape pomace enhanced phenolic content, oil-binding capacity, antioxidant activity, color, and textural parameters.[84]
Muffins15 g of GPPThe particle size of the GPP was found to affect the texture, color, antioxidant activity, and sensory properties of the muffins.[65]
Pasta25% and 50% of GPPThe pasta with 50% GPF demonstrated an excellent mix of antioxidant activity, nutritional value, consumer appeal, and promise as a new functional food.[85]
Pasta25% of GPPThe addition of GPP raised the amount of dietary fiber in the finished product by nearly 45 times.[86]
Pasta5% and 10% (w/w) GPPPolyphenol concentration varied amongst GP-fresh pasta samples and rose proportionately with the quantity of GPP applied. The antioxidant activity of raw GP-fresh pasta samples did not differ but increased during cooking due to interactions between polyphenols in GPP and gluten proteins.[87]
Pasta3, 6 and 9% (w/w) GPPThe inclusion of GPS into pasta formulations of up to 6% resulted in products with better organoleptic and functional qualities. A 9% GPS level is not suggested in the pasta recipe because of the challenges that might develop in the pasta processing, in the reduction of the dough elasticity.[88]
Pizza basesGrape pomace (mix of skin/seed flour 70:30 (w/w)) to replace 15–25% of wheat flourThe addition of grape pomace to pizza bases enhanced fiber content and antioxidant activity. Significant differences were observed in texture based on the type and percentage of grape pomace added.[52]
Savory crackers5%, 10% and 15% (w/w) GPPThe incorporation of GPP in savory crackers showed potential as a functional food, with novel colors and enhanced fiber amount.[75]
Wheat bread5 g and 10 g/100 g GPPThe incorporation of GPP in wheat bread changed the taste, color, and flavor of the bread.[78]
Wheat pasta4% (w/w) GPPThe incorporation of GPP improved phenolic content, antioxidant activity, carotenoids, tocochromanols, and fiber content.[89]
Wheat pasta5 g and 10 g grape pomace/100 g Pasta fortified with grape pomace increased TPC, antioxidant activity, and fiber content in cooked products.[90]
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Abreu, T.; Sousa, P.; Gonçalves, J.; Hontman, N.; Teixeira, J.; Câmara, J.S.; Perestrelo, R. Grape Pomace as a Renewable Natural Biosource of Value-Added Compounds with Potential Food Industrial Applications. Beverages 2024, 10, 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages10020045

AMA Style

Abreu T, Sousa P, Gonçalves J, Hontman N, Teixeira J, Câmara JS, Perestrelo R. Grape Pomace as a Renewable Natural Biosource of Value-Added Compounds with Potential Food Industrial Applications. Beverages. 2024; 10(2):45. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages10020045

Chicago/Turabian Style

Abreu, Teresa, Patrícia Sousa, Jéssica Gonçalves, Nance Hontman, Juan Teixeira, José S. Câmara, and Rosa Perestrelo. 2024. "Grape Pomace as a Renewable Natural Biosource of Value-Added Compounds with Potential Food Industrial Applications" Beverages 10, no. 2: 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages10020045

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