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Light as a Form of Visual Language Supporting Daily Schedules in Educational Spaces: A Design Framework
Exploring the Impact of Urban Morphology on Building Energy Consumption and Outdoor Comfort: A Comparative Study in Hot-Humid Climates
Development of Virtual Tours for Understanding the Built Environment of an Educational Building
Comparison of Embodied Carbon Footprint of a Mass Timber Building Structure with a Steel Equivalent
Building a Greener Future: Advancing Concrete Production Sustainability and the Thermal Properties of 3D-Printed Mortars

Journal Description

Buildings

Buildings is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on building science, building engineering and architecture published monthly online by MDPI. The International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) is affiliated with Buildings and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Civil) / CiteScore - Q1 (Architecture)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.2 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion Journal: Architecture.

Impact Factor: 3.1 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.2 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-5309

Latest Articles

12 pages, 2678 KiB

Open AccessArticle

System Optimization and Operating Strategy of Single-Stage Air Source Heat Pump with Thermal Storage to Reduce Wind Power Curtailment

by Qianyue Ren, Chuang Gao and Jie Jia

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1993; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071993 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

Wind power generation has increased in China to achieve the target of decreasing CO₂ emissions by 2050, but there are high levels of wind curtailment due to the mismatch between electricity supply and demand. This paper proposes a single-stage air source heat [...] Read more.

Wind power generation has increased in China to achieve the target of decreasing CO₂ emissions by 2050, but there are high levels of wind curtailment due to the mismatch between electricity supply and demand. This paper proposes a single-stage air source heat pump coupled with thermal storage for building heating purposes. The main objective is to find the proper system designs and operating strategy, which can help to avoid peak demand periods while obtaining minimized running costs and reduced wind energy curtailment. Dynamic simulations were performed using TRNSYS to investigate its use in a typical office building based on an actual electricity tariff, wind power, and meteorological data. The proper system designs, including the tank size and thermal storage temperature, were determined to maximize the system’s performance. It was found that a proper combination of the two parameters exists for a specific application. Further, results showed that the use of auxiliary electric heating is necessary for single-stage air source heat pumps to participate in a wind curtailment reduction. The operating strategy of the system was also studied. Results indicate that by implementing a proper operating strategy, non-renewable power consumption can be reduced by 11% for the studied building, with a total wind power utilization of 3348 kWh during the heating season while still satisfying the heating demands of users. These findings can contribute to the green and low-carbon development of the building industry and further enhance the grid’s accommodation capacity for renewable energy sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Buildings)

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28 pages, 8010 KiB

Open AccessReview

Drilling Process Monitoring for Predicting Mechanical Properties of Jointed Rock Mass: A Review

by **aoyue Yu, Mingming He, Wei Hao and Haoteng Wang

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1992; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071992 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

Reliably assessing the quality and mechanical properties of rock masses is crucial in underground engineering. However, existing methods have significant limitations in terms of applicability and accuracy. Therefore, a field measurement method that meets the real-time monitoring and safety requirements for the quality [...] Read more.

Reliably assessing the quality and mechanical properties of rock masses is crucial in underground engineering. However, existing methods have significant limitations in terms of applicability and accuracy. Therefore, a field measurement method that meets the real-time monitoring and safety requirements for the quality of engineering rock masses is needed. Firstly, the research findings of domestic and international scholars on the application of drilling process monitoring technology are comprehensively analyzed. Rotary cutting penetration tests are conducted on tuff rock masses containing fractures and joints. Various rock mass classification and evaluation standards are integrated with rotary penetration tests. Rotary cutting penetration tests are used to determine the residual strength of rock, based on this review. The rationality of the calculated m_i parameter values is validated. The peak strength, residual strength, and errors of the rock are obtained based on the penetration method. The rock quality index rock quality designation from drilling (RQD_d) is redefined, based on the drilling process monitoring apparatus (DPMA). Rock mass classification is conducted, based on the correlation between the standard deviation of rotary drilling energy and the rock quality designation (RQD). Additionally, a new relational formula is introduced to determine the RQD from variations in drilling energy, based on discontinuity frequency. This field measurement method undoubtedly provides a crucial scientific basis for rock design and construction, ensuring long-term safety in engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Construction in Urban Underground Space)

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16 pages, 5560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Monitoring of RC Beams under Different Partial Alkali–Silica Reactions: Experimental Results and Restraint Mechanisms

by Feng Sheng, Xuehui An, Yuan Wang and Yuxiang Zhou

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1991; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071991 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

The alkali–silica reaction significantly impacts the durability of reinforced concrete structures. This paper aims to investigate the structural expansion properties of reinforced concrete beams under different partial alkali–silica reactions. Alkali–silica reaction tests were conducted on four reinforced concrete beams, focusing on immersion depth [...] Read more.

The alkali–silica reaction significantly impacts the durability of reinforced concrete structures. This paper aims to investigate the structural expansion properties of reinforced concrete beams under different partial alkali–silica reactions. Alkali–silica reaction tests were conducted on four reinforced concrete beams, focusing on immersion depth and NaOH solution position as key parameters. Subsequently, the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of the beam expansion rate were analyzed. Results indicate notable variations in the expansion’s initiation, rate, and final magnitude at different measurement points on the concrete beam, depending on the soaking positions and depths used. The expansion rate was higher in areas directly immersed in the NaOH solution, decreasing near the reinforcement regions. However, strain distribution, along with beam height, satisfied plane-section assumption in the reinforced beam section. Finally, a regional expansion index was established to quantitatively assess the non-uniform damage by alkali aggregates in beams, and the uniaxial restraint mechanism in reinforced concrete structures was also described. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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16 pages, 4683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Upper Bound Analysis of Two-Layered Slopes Subjected to Seismic Excitations Using the Layer-Wise Summation Method

by Lili ** and Youfang Liao

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1990; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071990 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

Due to natural sedimentation and artificial filling, slopes exhibit heterogeneity in the form of multi-layer soils, namely, layered slopes. Compared with homogenous slopes, the failure mechanism of layered slopes is more complex owing to the different shear strengths of each soil layer. Therefore, [...] Read more.

Due to natural sedimentation and artificial filling, slopes exhibit heterogeneity in the form of multi-layer soils, namely, layered slopes. Compared with homogenous slopes, the failure mechanism of layered slopes is more complex owing to the different shear strengths of each soil layer. Therefore, it is of great importance to gain insight into the stability of layered slopes. In this study, the upper bound theorem of limit analysis incorporated with a pseudo-static approach is utilized to investigate the seismic stability of two kinds of two-layered slopes: one with a stiff lower soil layer and the other with a weak lower soil layer. Three failure patterns, namely face failure, toe failure and base failure, are taken into account. A depth coefficient (Δ) is introduced to describe the distribution of two soil layers. The layer-wise summation method is adopted to calculate the safety factor and yield acceleration coefficient more conveniently. Based on Newmark’s method, the earthquake-induced horizontal displacement is estimated. The calculated results are validated by comparisons with published literature and the numerical method in terms of safety factor, critical failure surface and yield acceleration coefficient. The results show that the depth coefficient has a significant influence on the failure mechanism of two-layered slopes by determining whether the stability of upper-layered soil is dominant in the overall slope stability or not. Inaccurately identifying the failure patterns will overestimate the seismic performance of two-layered slopes in the aspects of safety factor and yield acceleration coefficient, leading to an underestimation of earthquake-induced horizontal displacement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Underground Space Design: Structural Stability and Mechanics Analysis)

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14 pages, 1493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Load Prediction in Residential Buildings Using Interpretable Classification

by Fayez Abdel-Jaber and Kim N. Dirks

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1989; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071989 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

Energy efficiency is a critical aspect of engineering due to the associated monetary and environmental benefits it can bring. One aspect in particular, namely, the prediction of heating and cooling loads, plays a significant role in reducing energy use costs and in minimising [...] Read more.

Energy efficiency is a critical aspect of engineering due to the associated monetary and environmental benefits it can bring. One aspect in particular, namely, the prediction of heating and cooling loads, plays a significant role in reducing energy use costs and in minimising the risks associated with climate change. Recently, data-driven approaches, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML), have provided cost-effective and high-quality solutions for the prediction of heating and cooling loads. However, few studies have focused on interpretable classifiers that can generate not only reliable predictive systems but are also easy to understand for the stakeholders. This research investigates the applicability of ML techniques (classification) in the prediction of the heating and cooling loads of residential buildings using a dataset consisting of various variables such as roof area, building height, orientation, surface area, wall area, and glassing area distribution. Specifically, we sought to determine whether models that derive rules are competitive in terms of performance when compared with other classification techniques for assessing the energy efficiency of buildings, in particular the associated heating and cooling loads. To achieve this aim, several ML techniques including k-nearest neighbor (kNN), Decision Tree (DT)-C4.5, naive Bayes (NB), Neural Network (Nnet), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Rule Induction (RI)- Repeated Incremental Pruning to Produce Error (RIPPER) were modelled and then evaluated based on residential data using a range of model evaluation parameters such as recall, precision, and accuracy. The results show that most classification techniques generate models with good predictive power with respect to the heating or cooling loads, with better results achieved with interpretable classifiers such as Rule Induction (RI), and Decision Trees (DT). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI and Data Analytics for Energy-Efficient and Healthy Buildings)

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42 pages, 4159 KiB

Open AccessReview

Enhancing Construction Performance: A Critical Review of Performance Measurement Practices at the Project Level

by Abdelazim Ibrahim, Tarek Zayed and Zoubeir Lafhaj

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1988; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071988 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

The construction industry faces significant challenges in measuring and assessing performance effectively. Conventional methods of measuring construction performance have become less effective, prompting a need to adopt non-financial performance measurements. This shift acknowledges the shortcomings of relying solely on financial performance measurement systems. [...] Read more.

The construction industry faces significant challenges in measuring and assessing performance effectively. Conventional methods of measuring construction performance have become less effective, prompting a need to adopt non-financial performance measurements. This shift acknowledges the shortcomings of relying solely on financial performance measurement systems. As a result, there has been a substantial increase in research and focus on non-financial performance measurement systems in recent decades. This study focuses on analyzing performance measurement practices and key performance indicators (KPIs) in the construction industry, specifically at the project level. By examining 146 relevant articles, the study offers a thorough overview of various aspects of project performance. In addition to the traditional dimensions of the project management triangle (cost, time, and quality performance), the study emphasizes the importance of considering other dimensions. These include stakeholder performance, safety performance, technology utilization performance, value performance, environmental impact performance, and the application of maturity models. By incorporating these additional KPIs, a more comprehensive and holistic evaluation of project performance can be achieved. This study’s findings make notable contributions to the methodological framework of performance measurement in construction projects. By consolidating diverse research sources, the study offers valuable guidance for future research in the field of project performance. Moreover, it provides insights into selecting suitable performance measurement methods, empowering practitioners to effectively assess and manage project performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Construction Scheduling, Quality and Risk Management)

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24 pages, 8033 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Failure Analysis of the Long-Term Overturning Stability of Concrete Continuous Single-Column Pier Bridges Considering Creep and Overloaded Vehicles

by Yelu Wang, Jun Tian, Dong Zheng, Dayang **g, Benzhen Cai and **aofeng Liu

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1987; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071987 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

Several single-column pier girder bridges have been involved in overturning accidents, resulting in significant economic losses and casualties, thus necessitating a risk assessment of the overturning stability. To date, the effect of structural degradation due to concrete creep on the long-term stability of [...] Read more.

Several single-column pier girder bridges have been involved in overturning accidents, resulting in significant economic losses and casualties, thus necessitating a risk assessment of the overturning stability. To date, the effect of structural degradation due to concrete creep on the long-term stability of bridges has not been demonstrated. In this study, a full-scale nonlinear analysis of the lateral overturning process of a collapsed concrete box girder based on the explicit dynamic finite element method (EFEM) was conducted to verify the reliability of the numerical method. An EFEM model incorporating concrete creep was developed to demonstrate the effect of structural degradation on the long-term stability of bridges. The synthesis overturning axis method (SOAM) was proposed to evaluate the long-term overturning stability of concrete continuous bridges, aiming to address the deficiencies in existing methods, particularly for curved bridges, and was compared with conventional methods. The results show that the variations in bearing reaction forces between curved and straight bridges under creep and self-weight are minimal, staying within 2%. An increase in the creep terminal coefficient results in the opposite trend in the ultimate vehicle weight of curved bridges and straight bridges, but fluctuations remain within 2%, indicating that long-term creep has a limited effect on the overall overturning stability. A failure analysis of 20 single-column pier bridges reveals significant differences in the ultimate vehicle weight between the rigid overturning axis method (ROAM) and folded overturning axis method (FOAM), with error ranges of −14.2% to 567.4% and −99.1% to −32.1%, respectively. The SOAM results have the smallest error range compared to those of the EFEM, with an error range of −38.8% to 33.9%. Despite these errors, the SOAM demonstrates a significant improvement in characterizing the trend and assessment accuracy of the overall overturning stability of single-column pier bridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Resilient Civil Infrastructure)

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15 pages, 9503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Real-Time Study on the Cracking Characteristics of Polyvinyl Alcohol Fiber-Reinforced Geopolymer Composites under Splitting Tensile Load Based on High-Speed Digital Image Correlations

by Yunhan Zhang, Yuhan Sun, Weiliang Zhong and Lifeng Fan

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1986; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071986 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

The cracking of geopolymer caused by its brittleness characteristics could reduce the stability and durability of the building structure. Studying the cracking behavior of fiber-reinforced geopolymer composites (FRGCs) is important to evaluate the toughness strengthening of geopolymer. This paper presents a real-time study [...] Read more.

The cracking of geopolymer caused by its brittleness characteristics could reduce the stability and durability of the building structure. Studying the cracking behavior of fiber-reinforced geopolymer composites (FRGCs) is important to evaluate the toughness strengthening of geopolymer. This paper presents a real-time study on the cracking characteristics of FRGCs under splitting tensile load based on high-speed digital image correlation (HDIC) technology. The splitting tensile test was conducted on the FRGC with different fiber content. The real-time variation of strain and displacement field during the splitting process was analyzed. The influence of fiber content on the mechanical properties and crack behavior of FRGCs was discussed. Considering the splitting strength and crack width, the optimal fiber content for FRGCs that satisfied the crack resistance requirement was proposed. The results show that the incorporation of fiber can delay the cracking time and reduce strain change during the splitting process. The splitting tensile strength and the deformation increase as fiber content increases, while the crack width decreases as fiber content increases. The FRGC with 2.0% fiber content can maintain a crack width smaller than 0.1 mm, which satisfies the crack resistance requirements of practical engineering for economic consideration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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26 pages, 10488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an AI Model Utilizing Buildings’ Thermal Mass to Optimize Heating Energy and Indoor Temperature in a Historical Building Located in a Cold Climate

by Jan Akander, Hossein Bakhtiari, Ali Ghadirzadeh, Magnus Mattsson and Abolfazl Hayati

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1985; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071985 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

Historical buildings account for a significant portion of the energy use of today’s building stock, and there are usually limited energy saving measures that can be applied due to antiquarian and esthetic restrictions. The purpose of this case study is to evaluate the [...] Read more.

Historical buildings account for a significant portion of the energy use of today’s building stock, and there are usually limited energy saving measures that can be applied due to antiquarian and esthetic restrictions. The purpose of this case study is to evaluate the use of the building structure of a historical stone building as a heating battery, i.e., to periodically store thermal energy in the building’s structures without physically changing them. The stored heat is later utilized at times of, e.g., high heat demand, to reduce peaking as well as overall heat supply. With the help of Artificial Intelligence and Convolutional Neural Network Deep Learning Modelling, heat supply to the building is controlled by weather forecasting and a binary calendarization of occupancy for the optimization of energy use and power demand under sustained comfortable indoor temperatures. The study performed indicates substantial savings in total (by approximately 30%) and in peaking energy (by approximately 20% based on daily peak powers) in the studied building and suggests that the method can be applied to other, similar cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Application of Smart Technologies in Buildings)

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19 pages, 3513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Collaboration Skills among Architecture Students: A Quantitative Study in North Cyprus

by Hirou Karimi and Guita Farivarsadri

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1984; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071984 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

This research investigates the collaboration competencies among architecture students at Eastern Mediterranean University, in North Cyprus, highlighting the necessity for curricular enhancements to foster teamwork skills essential for professional practice. A structured questionnaire was administered to 77 final-year students, evaluating their knowledge, abilities, [...] Read more.

This research investigates the collaboration competencies among architecture students at Eastern Mediterranean University, in North Cyprus, highlighting the necessity for curricular enhancements to foster teamwork skills essential for professional practice. A structured questionnaire was administered to 77 final-year students, evaluating their knowledge, abilities, and experiences in collaborative settings. Factor analysis revealed twelve key components of collaboration, indicating moderate skill levels overall. Notably, students excelled in work quality, self-reflection, and time management yet exhibited deficiencies in team learning, role adaptability, and equitable idea contribution. This study identified five critical dimensions of teamwork: interpersonal facilitation, collaborative leadership, engagement contribution, active listening, and transparent information exchange. A strong correlation emerged between students’ perceived readiness for collaborative work and their self-rated leadership and interpersonal skills. Comparative analysis showed distinct collaboration skill sets between international and domestic students and across different academic years. These insights emphasize the imperative for architectural education to progressively incorporate specific learning activities and interventions to cultivate teamwork competencies systematically. The development of such skills is vital for preparing graduates to effectively navigate and lead within the multidisciplinary contexts they will face. Recommendations include curriculum redesign to integrate explicit teamwork instruction, faculty development programs, and fostering an educational culture that consistently values collaboration. Future studies should investigate effective pedagogical strategies for nurturing collaboration skills and examine how individual variances affect the acquisition of these critical abilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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28 pages, 6904 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automated Building Information Modeling Compliance Check through a Large Language Model Combined with Deep Learning and Ontology

by Nanjiang Chen, Xuhui Lin, Hai Jiang and Yi An

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1983; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071983 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

Ensuring compliance with complex industry standards and regulations during the design and implementation phases of construction projects is a significant challenge in the building information modeling (BIM) domain. Traditional manual compliance checking methods are inefficient and error-prone, failing to meet modern engineering demands. [...] Read more.

Ensuring compliance with complex industry standards and regulations during the design and implementation phases of construction projects is a significant challenge in the building information modeling (BIM) domain. Traditional manual compliance checking methods are inefficient and error-prone, failing to meet modern engineering demands. Natural language processing (NLP) and deep learning methods have improved efficiency and accuracy in rule interpretation and compliance checking. However, these methods still require extensive manual feature engineering, large, annotated datasets, and significant computational resources. Large language models (LLMs) provide robust language understanding with minimal labeled data due to their pre-training and few-shot learning capabilities. However, their application in the AEC field is still limited by the need for fine-tuning for specific tasks, handling complex texts with nested clauses and conditional statements. This study introduces an innovative automated compliance checking framework that integrates LLM, deep learning models, and ontology knowledge models. The use of LLM is motivated by its few-shot learning capability, which significantly reduces the need for large, annotated datasets required by previous methods. Deep learning is employed to preliminarily classify regulatory texts, which further enhances the accuracy of structured information extraction by the LLM compared to directly feeding raw data into the LLM. This novel combination of deep learning and LLM significantly enhances the efficiency and accuracy of compliance checks by automating the processing of regulatory texts and reducing manual intervention. This approach is crucial for architects, engineers, project managers, and regulators, providing a scalable and adaptable solution for automated compliance in the construction industry with broad application prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Monitoring and Detecting Methodologies for Building Structures)

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19 pages, 4004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Psychological Effects of a Living Wall System on Office Occupants: A Comparative Study Based on Physiological Responses

by Yiming Shao, Zhenghuan Zhou, Ding Ding, Yuanlong Cui and **anfeng Wu

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1981; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071981 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

A Living wall system (LWS) is a biophilic design element that has been introduced into indoor environments in recent years. Previous studies have demonstrated that the LWS improves indoor visual comfort and air quality. However, studies on its psychological effects on occupants are [...] Read more.

A Living wall system (LWS) is a biophilic design element that has been introduced into indoor environments in recent years. Previous studies have demonstrated that the LWS improves indoor visual comfort and air quality. However, studies on its psychological effects on occupants are still scarce. In this paper, the psychological effects were investigated by recording and analyzing the parameters of occupants’ physiological responses including an electroencephalogram (EEG) and heart rate variability (HRV). A cross-over experiment was conducted among 43 participants under three different desk work environments based on various materials involving an LWS, a fake LWS, and a bare white wall. The results conclude that LWSs effectively reduce the accumulation speed of negative psychological states caused by desk work to about 1/3, compared with a regular office environment without an LWS. However, occupants tend to be less excited and focused after resting in the LWS environment. Therefore, it is recommended to place LWSs in the rest area rather than close to the desk area in an office building, considering the balance between mental health and work efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Evaluated Luminous Environment on the Comfort Level in Buildings)

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16 pages, 2993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment of Single-Story Low-Income Housing: A Brazilian Case Study

by Marianne Di Domênico, Lauro André Ribeiro and Thaísa Leal da Silva

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1980; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071980 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

This study aims to assess the environmental impacts of different construction systems employed in a single-story low-income housing development utilizing Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The LCA was applied to the roof, wall, coating, and floor systems, considering the initial and recurring impacts from [...] Read more.

This study aims to assess the environmental impacts of different construction systems employed in a single-story low-income housing development utilizing Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The LCA was applied to the roof, wall, coating, and floor systems, considering the initial and recurring impacts from extraction to material replacement. Data were quantified using the CML 2001 method with OpenLCA 1.9 software. The analyzed impact categories are the potential for the depletion of abiotic resources—non-fossil (ADP); potential for the depletion of abiotic resources—fossil (ADP f); soil and water acidification potential (AP); eutrophication potential (EP); global warming potential—100 (GWP); stratospheric ozone layer depletion potential (ODP); and photochemical oxidation potential (POCP). The results highlight the impacts related to the maintenance and replacement of materials as the most significant, with walls being the system with the highest concentration of impacts, presenting the highest results among five of the seven categories. In the GWP category, the wall system resulted in 42% of total impacts (initial + recurring impacts). These findings show that the selection and definition of construction materials in the design phase can either mitigate or exacerbate environmental burdens. Therefore, this research contribution lies in pinpointing the environmental impacts of each construction system of low-income housing to support architects and engineers in addressing environmental impacts when making project decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers of the CIRMARE 2023 – VI International Congress on Recovery, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Buildings)

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21 pages, 14216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gypsum-Enhanced Red Mud Composites: A Study on Strength, Durability, and Leaching Characteristics

by Shiying Yan, Yu Cheng, Wentong Wang, Lu ** and Ziyi Ding

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1979; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071979 (registering DOI) - 1 Jul 2024

The strong alkalinity of red mud and the heavy metals it contains pose a serious threat to the environment. This study investigated the possibility of applying red mud as a solid waste material in road construction to mitigate the problem of red mud [...] Read more.

The strong alkalinity of red mud and the heavy metals it contains pose a serious threat to the environment. This study investigated the possibility of applying red mud as a solid waste material in road construction to mitigate the problem of red mud accumulation. Red mud was modified using titanium gypsum and phosphogypsum as curing agents. The effects of varying gypsum types and mixing ratios on the mechanical properties and heavy metal leaching of the resulting red mud-based materials were assessed using percussion tests, unconfined compressive strength measurements, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and continuous heavy metal leaching tests. The results showed that the optimal moisture content for titanium gypsum–cement-stabilized red mud (RTC) exceeds that of phosphogypsum–cement-stabilized red mud (RPC), with RTC exhibiting a lower maximum dry density compared to RPC. When the gypsum admixture was within 10%, the strength of the RPC was higher than that of the RTC at the same and curing time. The reticulation in RPC-10 was denser. The cumulative heavy metal releases from both RTC and RPC were within the permissible limits for Class III groundwater discharge standards. Based on the comprehensive test results, RPC is identified as the superior modified red mud material, with an optimal mix ratio of red mud/phosphogypsum/cement of 87:5:8. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Infrastructure)

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21 pages, 1806 KiB

Open AccessReview

Applying Systems Thinking to Research into Risk Factors Influencing Earthmoving Equipment Operation Safety in Construction Sites

by Nazi Soltanmohammadlou, Carol K. H. Hon and Robin Drogemuller

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1978; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071978 (registering DOI) - 30 Jun 2024

Earthmoving operations in the construction process are complex environments that involve interactions between equipment, the workforce, and materials within an overarching construction plan. Over the past two decades, researchers in construction have focused on improving the safety of construction earthmoving equipment due to [...] Read more.

Earthmoving operations in the construction process are complex environments that involve interactions between equipment, the workforce, and materials within an overarching construction plan. Over the past two decades, researchers in construction have focused on improving the safety of construction earthmoving equipment due to their omnipresence in the construction environment. Although previous studies have explored safety risks and the causes of accidents involving construction earthmoving equipment, their approaches were common and lacked a comprehensive perspective. Hence, this systematic literature review applies Rasmussen’s (1997) risk management framework using a systems thinking approach to identify and classify the risk factors influencing earthmoving equipment operation safety in construction sites. Utilizing a multistep methodology, this research first identifies 38 risk factors pertinent to earthmoving equipment operations and then classifies them based on systems thinking. Social network analysis (SNA) is employed to analyze the data. The results show that most research on earthmoving equipment safety focuses on monitoring construction sites, but very little on government and regulatory roles. When considering the interdependencies of risk factors, safety training is the most important factor, followed by the largely overlooked earthmoving machinery characteristics and manufacturer’s performance. The results of this review inform both the research community and industry practitioners regarding the less-understood aspects of earthmoving equipment operation safety and future research directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Sustainable and Healthy Work Environment in Construction Industry 4.0)

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14 pages, 2931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Mechanical Properties of Sandy Soil Solidified by Enzyme-Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (EICP)

by Lu**g Yuan, Gang Li, Jia Liu, Pengzhou Wang, Cong Liu and **li Zhang

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1977; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071977 (registering DOI) - 30 Jun 2024

Earth–rock dams are widely distributed in China and play an important role in flood control, water storage, water-level regulation, and water quality improvement. As an emerging seepage control and reinforcement technology in the past few years, enzyme (urease)-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (EICP) has [...] Read more.

Earth–rock dams are widely distributed in China and play an important role in flood control, water storage, water-level regulation, and water quality improvement. As an emerging seepage control and reinforcement technology in the past few years, enzyme (urease)-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (EICP) has the qualities of durability, environmental friendliness, and great economic efficiency. For EICP-solidified standard sand, this study analyzes the effect of dry density, amount of cementation, standing time, perfusion method, and other factors on the permeability and strength characteristics of solidified sandy soil by conducting a permeability test and an unconfined compression test and then working out the optimal solidification conditions of EICP. Furthermore, a quantitative relationship is established between the permeability coefficient (PC), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), and CaCO₃ generation (CG). The test findings indicate that the PC of the solidified sandy soil decreases and the UCS rises as the starting dry density, amount of cementation, and standing time rise. With the increase of CG, the PC of the solidified sandy soil decreases while the UCS increases, indicating a good correlation among PC, UCS, and CG. The optimal condition of solidification by EICP is achieved by the two-stage grouting method with an initial dry density of 1.65 g/cm³, cementation time of 6 d, and standing time of 5 d. Under such conditions, the permeability of the solidified sandy soil is 6.25 × 10⁻⁴ cm/s, and the UCS is 1646.94 kPa. The findings of this study are of great theoretical value and scientific significance for guiding the reinforcement of earth–rock dams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Performance of Traditional, New and Potential Building Materials: 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 10426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Pore Water Pressure Development Characteristics of PHC Pipe Piles in Soft Soil Foundations

by Zhaolin Jia, Han Wu, Shuaiqi He, Qixiang Zhao and **aoxu Zhang

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1976; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071976 (registering DOI) - 30 Jun 2024

When constructing hollow prestressed high-strength concrete (PHC) pipe piles in soft soil foundations, the generation and dissipation of pore water pressure can induce negative friction on the pile. This phenomenon increases the settlement of the pile foundation and, in severe cases, can lead [...] Read more.

When constructing hollow prestressed high-strength concrete (PHC) pipe piles in soft soil foundations, the generation and dissipation of pore water pressure can induce negative friction on the pile. This phenomenon increases the settlement of the pile foundation and, in severe cases, can lead to pile deflection and flotation. To further investigate the development characteristics of pore water pressure during PHC hollow pipe pile driving in soft soil, this study combined existing theories and numerical models to analyze the generation and influence areas of pore water pressure. Field tests were conducted at three different sites: an untreated site, a surcharge preloading site, and a site treated with cement mixing piles and well dewatering. These tests monitored and analyzed the horizontal and vertical development and behavior of pore water pressure during pile driving at each site. The results indicate that during the pile driving process, when the horizontal distance from the pile center is 3d and 9d, the peak values of the excess pore water pressure in the site treated with cement mixing piles and well dewatering are 117 kPa and 100 kPa. After pile driving is completed, they decrease to 50 kPa and 48 kPa, respectively. The peak values of excess pore water pressure in the surcharge preloading site are 122 kPa and 97 kPa, and after pile driving, they decreased to 80 kPa and 21 kPa, respectively. The peak values of excess pore water pressure in untreated sites are 140 kPa and 121 kPa; after pile driving, they decreased to 82 kPa and 60 kPa, respectively. Pore water pressure increases with the depth of pile driving and decreases with distance from the pile driving location. The peak pore water pressure and dissipation rate during construction were found to be higher at the untreated site compared to the other two sites. Therefore, during pile sinking in soft soil foundations, dewatering and driving drainage boards are effective methods for reducing pore water pressure and accelerating its dissipation. These findings provide a theoretical basis and technical support for ensuring the safety of engineering constructions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Soil-Structure Interaction for Building Structures)

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16 pages, 6150 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shear Transfer in Concrete Joints with Non-Metallic Reinforcement

by Lore Zierul, Enrico Baumgärtel, David Sandmann and Steffen Marx

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1975; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071975 (registering DOI) - 30 Jun 2024

The use of non-metallic reinforcement can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of the construction sector. Mixed structures made out of steel and non-metallic reinforcement should be avoided due to the risk of galvanic corrosion. So far, researchers have been focusing on the load-bearing [...] Read more.

The use of non-metallic reinforcement can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of the construction sector. Mixed structures made out of steel and non-metallic reinforcement should be avoided due to the risk of galvanic corrosion. So far, researchers have been focusing on the load-bearing behavior in the longitudinal direction of the fibers. In this study, the behavior of the fibers in the non-metallic reinforcements is analyzed perpendicular to the fiber orientation. Therefore, a uniaxial shear test on a single bar (uniaxial shear test), as well as a series of push-off tests with reinforcements embedded in the concrete, was carried out. For both experiments, bars made of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) and glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRPs) were investigated. In order to analyze the influence of non-metallic reinforcement in the joint, specimens without reinforcement have been tested as well. Also, the joint roughness and reinforcement ratio of the concrete joint was varied in the tests. The determined transverse shear strengths for the single bar exceed the values of the producer. For the push-off test, high standard deviations occurred, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions. Nevertheless, it is shown that increasing the amount of reinforcement leads to higher ultimate forces. The presented study emphasizes the necessity of further studies of the shear transfer in concrete joints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Construction)

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47 pages, 20004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Efficiency Assessment of Existing Rural Houses in Nantong Based on Human Thermal Comfort

by Zhongcheng Duan, Haoran Li, Kuntao Hu and Chen Shi

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1974; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071974 (registering DOI) - 29 Jun 2024

Current research on rural houses in China mainly focuses on improving energy efficiency, with relatively few studies addressing energy-saving measures and enhancing thermal comfort for residents. Therefore, this paper focuses on existing rural houses in Nantong City, Jiangsu Province, as the research object. [...] Read more.

Current research on rural houses in China mainly focuses on improving energy efficiency, with relatively few studies addressing energy-saving measures and enhancing thermal comfort for residents. Therefore, this paper focuses on existing rural houses in Nantong City, Jiangsu Province, as the research object. Through on-site measurements and questionnaire surveys, it was found that the average indoor temperature of rural houses is 28.5 °C in summer and below 10 °C in winter, failing to meet the comfort needs of the villagers. To further study human thermal comfort, a linear regression method was used to establish an indoor Mean Thermal Sensation (MTS) model for Nantong’s rural houses. The neutral temperature in summer was found to be 26.46 °C, and an adaptive thermal comfort model for rural residents in the Nantong area was established. Through single-factor simulation and orthogonal experiments, the optimal comprehensive energy-saving renovation scheme was proposed. Finally, a typical rural house in Zhangzhuang Village was used as a case for building renovation practice. After the renovation, the number of thermal comfort hours increased by 145 h per year, the thermal comfort compliance rate reached 47.07%, and the overall energy-saving rate was 57.41%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment, 2nd Volume)

22 pages, 511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study and Action Plan on the Key Factors Influencing Unsafe Behaviors by Construction Workers

by Yingchen Wang, **gyao Cui, Yikai Zhang and **aoxiao Geng

Buildings 2024, 14(7), 1973; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14071973 (registering DOI) - 29 Jun 2024

As front-line workers on construction projects, construction workers have always had the highest accident rate among workers in various industries, a statistic that significantly impacts society. In this study, the 2–4 Model was used to identify 14 influencing factors affecting workers’ unsafe behaviors, [...] Read more.

As front-line workers on construction projects, construction workers have always had the highest accident rate among workers in various industries, a statistic that significantly impacts society. In this study, the 2–4 Model was used to identify 14 influencing factors affecting workers’ unsafe behaviors, and a safety management index for construction workers was established. The fuzzy decision-making laboratory analysis method (Fuzzy-DEMATEL) and the interpretative structural model (ISM) were used to analyze the hierarchical structure, internal relations, and key influencing factors behind the unsafe behaviors in question, and the 14 factors affecting them were divided into five dimensions, including the technological environment, insufficient safety knowledge, and the corporate safety culture. The three most direct influencing factors (comprising eight key nodes in the constructed hierarchy) were found to be poor safety awareness, the violation of operating procedures, and skill errors. Therefore, the main paths toward reducing the level of unsafe behavior among construction workers include making changes in process equipment, addressing skill-related errors, ensuring adherence to operating procedures, improving safety awareness, and enhancing safety knowledge. In this study, we identify and classify the factors influencing unsafe behaviors by construction workers and propose scientific interventions with which to prevent the continued occurrence of safety hazards among them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Sustainable and Healthy Work Environment in Construction Industry 4.0)

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